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THE OLDEST ENGLISH EPIC
T
THE MACMILLAN COMPANY
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TORONTO
IHE OLDEST ENGLISH EPIC
BEOWULF, FINNSBURG, WALDERE,
DEOR, WIDSITH, AND THE
GERMAN HILDEBRAND
TRANSLATED IN THE ORIGINAL METRES WITH INTRODUCTIONS AND NOTES
BY
FRANCIS B. GUMMERE
J? 0 fc d a_4.
NetD gotk
THE MACMILLAN COMPANY
1922
All rights reserved
— tTT
COPTRTOHT, 1909,
Bt the macmillan company.
Set up and eleotrotyped. Published April, 1909.
Nortoooli ^K88
J. 8. Gushing Co. — Berwick & Smith Co.
Norwood, Mass., U.S.A.
^0
GEORGE LYMAN KITTREDGE
KEENEST OF CRITICS, KINDEST OF FRIENDS
PREFACE
Old English epic in the specific sense is that ancient and wholly heathen narrative poetry which Englishmen brought from their continental home and handed down by the agency of professional singers. The material thus accumulated either kept its original form of the short lay, fit for chant or recitation at a banquet, full of immediate effects, often dramatic and always vigorous, or else it was worked over into longer shape, into more leisurely considered and more leisurely appreciated poems. This second class is represented by Beowulf, the sole sur- vivor in complete form of all the West-Germanic epic. Waldere, of which two brief fragments remain, seems also to have been an epic poem; like Beowulf, it has been adapted both in matter and in manner to the point of view of a monastery scriptorium. Finnshurg, on the other hand, so far as its brief and fragmentary form allows such a judgment, has the appearance of a lay. Its nervous, fiery verses rush on without comment or moral; and it agrees with the description of a lay which the court minstrel of Hrothgar sings before a festal throng, and of which the poet of Beowulf gives a summary. Not English at all, but closely related to English traditions of heroic verse, and the sole rescued specimen of all its kind in the old German language, is Hildehrand, evidently a lay. By adding this to the English material, one has
vii
viii PREFACE
the entire salvage from oldest narrative poetry of the West-Germanic peoples in mass. Finally, there are two lays or poems purporting to describe at first hand the life of these old minstrels, who either sang in permanent and well-rewarded office for their king, or else wandered from court to court and tasted the bounty of many chief- tains. These two poems, moreover, contain many refer- ences to persons and stories of Germanic heroic legends that appear afterward in the second growth of epic, in the Scandinavian poems and sagas, in the cycle of the Nihe- lungen, Griidrun^ and the rest. Such is the total rescue from oldest English epic that fate has allowed. It deserves to be read in its full extent by the modern English reader ; and it is now presented to him for the first time in its bulk, and in a form which approximates as closely as possible to the original.
The translator is under great obligations to Professor Walter Morris Hart, of the University of California, not only for his generous aid in reading the proof-sheets of this book, but also for the substantial help afforded by his admirable study of Ballad and Epic.
CONTENTS
CHAPTEK PAOB
I. Beowulf 1
II. The Attack on Finnsburg 159
III. Waldere • . . . 164
IV. The Hildebrand Lay 171
V. The Singer and His Lay 178
Index 201
Ix
THE OLDEST ENGLISH EPIC
CHAPTER I
BEOWULF
rpHE manuscript^ is written in West-Saxon of the tenth century, with some Kentish peculiarities; it is evi- dently based on successive copies of an original in either Northumbrian or Mercian, which probably belonged to the seventh century. ^ Two scribes made this copy. One wrote to verse 1939 ; the other, who seems to have con- tributed those Kentish forms, finished the poem. There is some attempt to mark the verses, and a few long syl- lables are indicated ; but the general appearance is of prose. The original epic seems to have been composed by a single author,^ not for chant or recitation to the accom- paniment of a harp, but for reading, as a "book."
1 Codex Vitellius, A, xv, British Museum ; injured by fire, but still legible in most places, and, for Beowulf, complete.
2 There is no positive evidence for any date of origins. All critics place it before the ninth century. The eighth brought monastic coiTup- tion to Northumbria ; while the seventh, described by Beda, with its austerity of morals, its gentleness, its tolerance, its close touch with milder forms of heathenism, matches admirably the controlling mood of the epic.
8 This attitude towards the so-called " Homeric question " in Beowulf must be explained and defended elsewhere, though a few hints are given in the following pages.
B 1
2 THE OLDEST ENGLISH EPIC
Libraries were then forming in England, and so edifying a poem as this could well find its place in them. Of course, the number of persons who heard the manuscript read aloud would be in vast excess of those who learned its contents through the eye. The poet may or may not have been a minstrel in early life; in any case he had turned bookman. He was familiar to some extent with the monastic learning of his day, but was at no great distance from old heathen points of view; and while his Christianity is undoubted, he probably lived under the influence of that "confessional neutrality," which ten Brink assumed for the special instance, and which his- torians record for sundry places and times. Above all, the poet knew ancient epic lays, dealing with Beowulf's adventures, which were sung in the old home of the Angles, and in Frisia, and were carried over to England ; out of these he took his material, retaining their form, style, and rhythmic structure, many of their phrases, their conventional descriptions, and perhaps for some passages their actual language. Finnshurg and Hildelrand give one an approximate idea of these older lays, which were property of the professional minstrel, the gleeman or scop. This scop^ or "maker," is always mentioned by the epic poet with respect. His business was to recite or chant to the music of a harp the lays of bygone generations before king or chieftain in court or hall, precisely as our epic describes the scene. ^ He must also on occasion compose, "put together" in the literal sense, a lay about recent happenings, often carrying it abroad from court to court as the news of the day.2 Out of such old lays of Beowulf's
1 See especially B., 1066 ff., and the two poems Widsith and Dfior.
2 See B.y 149 ff. For extemporizing, see the classical passage, B. , 867 ff.
BEOWULF 3
adventures, our poet selected, combined, and retold a complete story from his own point of view. Comment, reflection, and a certain heightening of effect, are his peculiar work, along with a dash of sentiment and an elegiac tone such as one feels one should not meet in a Finnshurg, even if the whole of that lay were preserved. Attempts to prove that the poem was translated or para- phrased from a Scandinavian original have been utterly unsuccessful. Quite obsolete, too, as in the case of Homer, is the idea that Beowulf is primitive and " popular " poetry. Its art is highly developed ; its material has been sifted through many versions and forms.
The characters of this epic of Beowulf are all continental Germanic. The scene of action for the first adventure is in Denmark ; and Hrothgar's hall was probably at a place now called Leire, not far from the fiord of Roeskilde. Where the fight with the dragon took place and Beowulf came to his death, depends on the opinion which one holds in regard to the home of the hero. There are two theo- ries; certainty, despite the recent proclamation of it, is out of the question. Beowulf is said to belong to the "Geatas"; and the majority of scholars^ hold that these Geatas were a tribe living in the southern part of Sweden. But some powerful voices have been raised for the Geatas as Jutes, who lived in what is now Jutland. In either case. Angles and Frisians, and whatever peoples were grouped about the Elbe, the Weser, and the Ems, would note with great interest, and hold long in memory, an expedition of Geatas which should proceed to the lower Rhine and there find defeat at the hands of a Frankish
1 Including Henrik Schtick, whose essay on the Geatas (Upsala, 1907) is thought by some reviewers to be final in its conclusions.
4 THE OLDEST ENGLISH EPIC
prince. Such an expedition actually occurred; it is the historical foundation not, to be sure, of the events of the epic, but of the existence of its characters. It is men- tioned several times in the poem,^ and is also matter of sober chronicle; its date is in the second decade of the sixth century. Gregory of Tours, in his History of the Franks^ says that Chochilaicus, king of the Danes, — in another and later story, say of the seventh century, this chieftain is called king of the " Getse," — invaded Holland in viking fashion, took a good store of plunder, and got it later on his boats ; but he was fought and killed by Theu- debert, son of the Frankish king, his booty was recaptured, and many prisoners were taken. It is etymologically certain that Chochilaicus is the Hygelac of our epic, uncle to Beowulf; and there is no reason to doubt the tradition that the hero himself, though not mentioned by the chron- icle, was with his kinsman and chieftain, and escaped after the defeat by a masterful piece of swimming. The poem tells this ; ^ and its exaggeration in loading Beo- wulf with thirty suits of armor is only proof that some- thing of the sort took place. Legend is always false and. always true. History invents facts ; but legend can only invent or transpose details; and there is sure to be some- thing real within the field of the glass which legend holds up to one's eyes, let the distortions be as they may be. Surely some stirring epic lays were sung about fight and fall and escape ; but in this phase of Beowulf's career our poet was not interested. He mentions many feuds of Franks, Frisians, Langobards, of Danes, Geats, Swedes ;
1 See B., 1202, 2201, 2355, 2913 ; and the notes to these passages.
2 III, 3. Dani, cum rege sua nomine Chochilaico, ... he begins. 8 See B., 2359 f.
BEOWULF 6
and he gives a summary of the hiy about one of these feuds which a gleeman sang to Hrothgar's court. But these, too, were outside of his main interest.
His interest in Beowulf seems to have centred in the hero's struggles with those uncanny and demonic, but not highly supernatural powers, who either dwell by moor- lands and under dismal waters, or else, in the well-known form of a dragon, haunt old barrows of the dead and fly at midnight with fiery trail through the air. Undoubtedly one is here on the border-land of myth. But in the actual poem the border is not crossed. Whatever the remote connection of Beowulf the hero with Beowa the god, whatever this god may have in him of the old Ingeevonic deity whom men worshipped by North Sea and Baltic as god of fertility and peace and trade, whatever echo of myths about a destroying monster of invading ocean tides and storms may linger in the story of Grendel and his horrible mother, nothing of the sort comes out of the shadow of conjecture into the light of fact. To the poet of the epic its hero is a man, and the monsters are such as folk then believed to haunt sea and lake and moor. Hrothgar's people who say they have seen the uncanny pair 1 speak just as real rustics would speak about ghosts and strange monsters which they had actually encountered. In both cases one is dealing with folk-lore and not with mythology. When these crude superstitions are devel- oped by priest and poet along polytheistic lines, and in large relations of time and space, myth is the result. But the actual epic of Beowulf knows nothing of this process; and there is no need to regard Grendel or his mother as backed by the artillery of doom, to regard Beowulf as the
» 2?., 1345 ff.
6 THE OLDEST ENGLISH EPIC
embodiment of heaven's extreme power and good-will. The poet even rationalizes his folk-lore. ^ Though there are traces of " another story," traces which would doubt- less lead to outright myth, the e^Dic is told in terms of human achievement. Though its hero, in this record of ad- venture, neither fights other heroes nor leads armies, and though, like many celebrated champions of vast strength, he is not at ease with ordinary weapons, nevertheless he is for the poet that same Beowulf who always fought in the van with trusty blade,^ despatched the mother of Grendel with a sword, and killed Dseghrefn, — presum- ably the slayer of Hygelac, — in the fatal combat by the lower Rhine. Yet Dseghrefn, one is abruptly told, as Beowulf boasts of all his good blade has done and all it is yet to do, was not slain by the sword, but " his bones were broken by brawny gripe."
The inconsistency of this passage, taken with that ref- erence elsewhere to the hero's inability to use a sword, is supposed by a few scholars to prove different origins for different portions of the actual epic. It really proves that the poet combined Beowulf of the actual " war record " with Beowulf of the struggles against monsters and dragons, the hero with thirty men's strength in his grasp. Every reader of popular tales knows that in these struggles swords are rarely good for much. Like Samson, Beowulf depends on his own might ; but that might must approach the miraculous. Different formulas, if one may use the term, are applied to different phases of the same hero's adventures. For example, Beowulf is evidently in one
1 Accounting for Grendel's invulnerability, B., 984-990, somewhat as in the case of the dragon (2699) which had to be pierced beneath, where it had no scales. '^ B. , 2490.
BEOWULF 7
formula a bright, capable, precocious boy ; his grandfather loves him as an own child; he performs, to his great renown, a prodigious feat of swimming when he is a mere lad.^ On the other hand, conforming to the type of many popu- lar tales, he is described ^ as " slack " in youth, a shiftless, clumsy, disregarded encumbrance, whom the king will not honor and whom the retainers despise : but the inevita- ble change comes, the hero bursts into full glory. Here is another formula. If it is not easy for modern criticism to fit these stories with one another and with their subject, let it be remembered how hard was the task which con- fronted the poet in his constructive problem. Unity of character was no object of the old lays ; vigorous narrative of action was all they attempted. Yet this poet strove manfully to make Beowulf a consistent character through- out the epic; and in view of the divergence of the differ- ent stories told of all heroes, one is inclined to think that the Northumbrian bard did his work fairly well. On the large plan he works out his design with evident intention of harmony. Parts match parts ; scenes answer to scenes; the pattern is plain. In detail, to be sure, he makes many a blunder. Grendel "in his folly'' despises weapons; yet it is explained that he is "safe" against them all, — and where is the folly ? Beowulf, in another .place, will take no mean advantage by bearing arms against one who knows nothing of their use ! ^ Grendel, again, terrible as he is to the Danes, never has a shred of chance with Beowulf, who is victor from the start; yet with the mother, who is expressly described as far less formidable than her off- spring, the hero is hard put to it, and nearly overcome. He trusts now in his sword, which fails. Is this the 1 B., 2432 ; 535. » B., 2187. 8 See B., 433 f. and 801 ff. ; and G77 ff.
8 THE OLDEST ENGLISH EPIC
Beowulf whose irresistible and crushing grasp made Grendel sing the wild song of death ? No, but it is the Beowulf who had such a thrilling adventure with the " she-wolf of the seas," that it could on no account be left out of the list. Adventures in the old cycles were not made to modern order ; and it was something of a triumph to combine the meagre account of the killing of Grendel, described as almost a bagatelle for the hero, with the far more detailed and interesting account of the des- perate struggle under water. Probably this hulking, swamp-haunting Grendel was originally no relative what- ever of the vicious but indomitable old " she-wolf," and their adventures were absolutely distinct. The poet, in one of the more modern passages, tells of their kinship and describes their home ; and it is not unlikely that he sought by this method of combination, which gave at the same time scope to his poetic fancy, to bring about unity in structure and conformity of general treatment. This assumption, moreover, would credit him with the descrip- tion of Hrothgar's court, the events there, the scene in which riders chant Beowulf's praise and a minstrel makes the lay about him, and, on the whole, a very handsome portion of the epic at large. The poet's invention cannot be denied.
In short, the best way to regard all the inconsistencies in the epic account of Beowulf is neither to split hira into equal parts of liero and god, nor yet to divide him among many poets, but simply to think of him as a hero who not only has his own fairly authentic story, but has attracted a whole cycle of more or less alien adventures into his sphere. There is ample analogy in the round of popular tales. Many a champion now fights in fierce
BEOWULF 0
battle, and now goes to exterminate a monster. I^orse stories tell of heroes whose adventures are so close to Beowulf's as to rouse suspicion of copy or common origin. In the present state of knowledge it is best to let the adventures pass as adventures, and to renounce more curious search. As was said, agnosticism is here the only safe attitude towards myth. Beowulf's swimming- match with Breca has been euhemerized into the mere killing of sea-beasts, and etherialized into a myth of the culture-god who taught a grateful folk how to navigate the stormy seas. Beowulf must be accepted as the hero of a tale. His capital adventures are the sort of thing which heroes, real or fictitious, are always assumed to do. They kill monsters, giants, dragons. " It is their nature to," as the old verse ran. Such feats are expected from a kindly and beneficent hero ; and such a hero the real Beowulf may well have been. If he reminded folk of a god Beowa, so much the better. He really rendered good service to some northern king, though he is no glorified rat-catcher. Perhaps he did destroy noxious beasts as other heroes had done. His last fight, if one can accept the dragon, is a most humanly told and everyday sort of tale, though it is quite another story compared with the former adventures.
The lays about all these adventures our poet heard and knew and loved. He knew also the lore of devils and hell's fiends, who vex the righteous man, and never- theless can be met and conquered by a Christian champion. He could not make a Christian out of Beowulf, but he describes the hero in terms of one of the converted An- glian kings and surrounds him with the amenities of the new courts. Of Grendel he made a hell-fiend outright,
10 THE OLDEST ENGLISH EPIC
and assigned him by superfluous genealogy to the tribe of Cain. The wise saws and ancient instances may be colored by a new theology; but they derived from the old wisdom poetry in which Germanic minds had long delighted.
We have thus come fairly close to an understanding of the poet's conception of the characters in his epic and his treatment of them. We must now look at the characters themselves.
II
The persons^ of the epic fall into evident groups. Apart from the prelude, which glorifies the Danish royal house, and repe9,ts the pretty myth of Scyld the Sheaf-Child, we have the actual family and companions of Hrothgar, king of the Danes. He himself is son of Healfdene — that is, a king whose mother was not of the Danish folk — and brother to Heorogar and Halga. The three brothers, as so often in Germanic families, have names in the same rime ; one thinks of Gunther, Giselher, and Gemot in the Nihelungen. Heorogar, the oldest, was king before Hrothgar, and had a son Heoroweard, but for some reason did not leave favorite armor to him. Halga was probably father of Hrothulf, — as in the Norse account, Helgi was father of Hrolf Kraki, the famous hero. Saxo tells the story of him, and his betrayal by a relative, who probably answers to Heoro- weard of our epic. In Widsith one is told more of Hrothgar and this nephew Hrothulf. Together they
1 To the scholars who have studied these characters and solved sundry problems of relationship and parallel mention, it is impossible to render adequate thanks and praise. Much is still left unsolved ; and some of the problems are insoluble.
BEOWULF 11
successfully repelled an attack by Ingeld, Hrothgar's sc«i- in-law, on their own land. Hrothgar's own sons are Hrethric and Hrothmund ; and they seem to be consider- ably younger than their cousin Hrothulf, judging by the queen's appeal ^ to the laiter, and her assumption that he would treat the boys honorably and kindly if their father, the king, should die. This queen of Hrothgar — who first breaks the list of aspirated names — is Wealhtheow (" foreign maid "), a dignified and charming woman so far as she appears in the epic. She and the king have a daughter, who made a favorable impression on the affable Beowulf; 2 he heard men in hall call her Freawaru as she went about, like her mother, pouring the ale. She was betrothed to Ingeld, son of Froda, the Heathobard king ; but the visitor forecasts no real good from this alliance. — Such was Hrothgar's family. Besides unnamed officers and attendants, three important men at his court were iEschere, his beloved comrade and chancellor, whom Grendel's mother destroys, a warrior of renown, rich in counsel, elder brother to Yrmenlaf ; further, Wulfgar, a prince of the Wendlas, chamberlain and marshal of the court ; and Unferth, the orator or spokesman, who is a puzzle in regard to his exact vocation and rank. He undertakes to " haze " Beowulf at the first banquet, and is badly beaten in the battle of words. He is a warrior, and lends Beowulf his sword ; but dark things are hinted about his character and perhaps about his reputation for coiirage. Yet he is a favorite of Hrothgar, sits " at his feet," — on a bench just below him, — and could be regarded as a kind of jester and merrymaker, were not his position so evidently above that class. " Orator " 1^., 1180. 2 5., 2020.
12 THE OLDEST ENGLISH EPIC
must do. He had the gift of tongues ; but there is no hint that he made verses.
Another quite subordinate group of Danes may be noted here as involved in the episode of Finn. Hnaef, son of Hoc, brother to Hildeburh, is said by Widsith to be ruler of the Hocings. His sister Hildeburh is married to Finn the Frisian king, son of Folcwalda. When Hnaef is killed, Hengest is leader of the Danes ; later he too is slain. Guthlaf and Oslaf are Danish warriors. — One Danish king, moreover, is mentioned as antitype for Beowulf. This is Heremod, who resembles both Lotherus of Saxo, and Hermod of the Hyndluljoth in Norse poetic tradition.
The other main group is that of the house of Hygelac, and his nephew Beowulf. Swerting, a king of the Geats, had a son Hrethel, who had three sons, — one notes again the rime and the aspirated names, — Herebeald, Hsethcyn, and Hygelac. By a tragic accident, Haethcyn shot and killed his elder brother ; he is killed himself in leading his people against the Swedes ; and Hygelac then becomes king. Hygelac falls on the historic raid, leaving a son, Heardred, who is killed by Onela the Swede. Then Beowulf comes to the throne. Professor Gering conjec- tures the year 521 for this accession. Hygelac's queen is Hygd, daughter of Heereth; when her husband falls, she offers the crown to Beowulf, but he prefers to act as re- gent for Heardred. Hygd is described in terms of praise. Hygelac, moreover, has a daughter whom he gives to Eofor in reward for killing Ongentheow, the Swedish king. Eofor and Wulf (" Boar " and " Wolf ") are sons of Wonred. As for the hero, he is a Wsegmunding, son of Ecgtheow of that tribe ; but his mother is only daughter
BEOWULF 13
of King Hrethel the Geat, who adopts the boy at seven years of age and brings him up. Ecgtheow, meanwhile, has killed one Heatholaf, a Wylfing, and is not allowed to stay with his wife's people, but takes refuge with Hrothgar the Dane. The boy, of course, remains with Hrethel. As sister's son to Hygelac, a very close relationship among the old Germans, "by some accounted nearer than actual sonship," Beowulf becomes virtually a Geat. Neverthe- less, when he dies he has but one kinsman left, the faithful Wiglaf, "last of the Waegmundings." Beowulf's own story 1 is mainly reminiscence of feuds in which he took part. He tells Hrothgar's court of his swimming adven- ture along with a friend of his youth, Breca, son of Bean- stan and prince of the Brondings. He also names to Hygelac a favorite thane who was killed by Grendel, Hondscio, whose man-price is paid by the Danish king. Beowulf leaves a widow,^ but no children. His " last words" are very impressive.^
One would like to have the lays which dealt with feud between Geat and Swede ; but all one has in the epic is allusion or summary.^ Ongentheow, a capable king, has the poet's good-will in spite of these hostile relations. He kills Hsethcyn, but is killed by Eofor as deputy of Hygelac. Ongentheow's son Onela becomes king of Swedes ; another son, Ohthere, has himself two sons, Eanmund and Eadgils (all these names rime by the initial vowels), who rebel against their uncle, King Onela, and are banished, taking refuge with Heardred the Geat. Onela invades Geatland and kills Heardred, but, it would seem, allows Beowulf to
1 B., 2425 ff. 2 The reading is generally accepted : see B., 3150.
8 See passages beginning B. , 2729 ; 2794 ; 2813.
* Many of these names and stories appear, more or less disguised, in Norse traditions.
14 THE OLDEST ENGLISH EPIC
succeed to the throne undisturbed. Later, Beowulf sup- ports Eadgils in an expedition of revenge ; the nephew- kills Onela and succeeds to the Swedish throne.
Other persons are mentioned incidentally. Dseghrefn, champion of the Hugas, or Franks, probably killed Hygelac, and was killed by Beowulf on the famous raid. Far more enticing are the dim traditions of Offa the old Anglian king, son of Garmund, and father of Eomer. Offa still was known by later generations, and by his kin beyond the German Ocean, as the best warrior and wage- giver who ever reigned in the sea-girt lands of the north. ^ Something of the Offa legend besides mere reminiscence and comparison has surely slipped into the epic ; but it is hard to follow in detail. A wider range of legend, touch- ing the heroic times which have given so many names and stories to Germanic verse, includes Eormanric the Goth, typical tyrant ; Hama, also a Goth, who bore away the mysterious Brosings' necklace ; and that famous pair, Sigemund and Fitela, the Wselsings, of whom the Volsung saga afterwards told so full a tale.^
Biblical names are few ; our poet was no pedant, and carried his learning with ease. Probably the burden was light. Cain and Abel decorate Grendel's family tree. " God " is used mainly in the Christian sense, even when divine dealings with a heathen people are in point. " Hel " is the place,^ not the goddess. But Weland, god of the forge, is named as maker of Beowulf's armor ; and if the conception of Wyrd, or Fate, is now and then a philosophical projection of the heathen goddess, it is more often a personal name. Devils, fiends, monsters, dragons, occur in indiscriminate execration of the Christian and i See Widsith, 38 fE. « See B., 1201, 1198, 879. » B., 852.
BEOWULF 15
heathen vocabulary. " Eotens " are giants, but also ene- mies, also devils ; in complimentary use, also Frisians.
Geography is not very clearly visualized, but it was conceived. The Frisians, Franks, Finns, place themselves. The Heathobards are either the Langobards, or a small tribe on the Elbe. The Danes are called Bright-Danes, Spear-Danes, and Ring-Danes; also, and quite indiffer- ently,^ North, South, East, and West Danes. The Geats are called Weather or Storm Geats, War Geats, and Sea Geats. Of their place names. Eagle Cliff and Whale's Cliff are mentioned, and "Hreosnabeorh." Ravenswood is probably to be sought in Swedish lands.
Ill
The poet used the old lays for facts and events, but he must have taken many of the descriptions as well as most of the comment into his own hand. The conditions of culture in the epic are fairly English; though the very raid on which Hygelac lost his life testifies to commerce, however predatory, on the part of continental Germanic tribes with the civilized section of Europe, and to their ac- quaintance with things of civilized life. The actual Beo- wulf surely knew wine, beds, ornaments and gold of all sorts, armor and weapons of the best ; these were objects of plunder. So, perliaps, even with tapestry. But the construction of the hall Heorot is certainly helped by ex post facto information of the poet, and so are the paved street, the mosaic floor, trappings of war-horses, musical instruments. Above all, the courtesy, refinement, reti- cence, and self-control not only of the main characters, but of chamberlains, watchmen, and the like, must be a reflec-
1 B., 383, 392.
16 THE OLDEST ENGLISH EPIC
tion of English life at one of the Christianized courts. Weapons and armor are perhaps traditional in the main. The corselet or coat of mail was very carefully made, and required a year of one man's time to forge it and to join its twenty thousand small rings, — the " ring-mail " of the poem.^ Shields are perpetually mentioned, and were mainly of wood, strengthened by leather and even by metal bands. The sword is so valued as to have name and pedigree. All this could be traditional ; and so could be the use of runes or letters for inscriptions on the hilt or blade of a sword. The poet still held to old be- lief in the magic effects of such runes, as well as in the efficacy of spells and bannings generally. One must not too closely regard this attitude of the bard, his puerility and pettiness of tone. Even Chaucer sins in the same fashion, if it be a sin to breathe the intellectual and artistic air of one's own day, and to reveal this habit in one's
work.
IV
Metre and style of the epic are traditional ; the art of the minstrel was unchanged by the poet. His rhythm holds to that four-stressed verse with initial rimes which dominates all Anglo-Saxon poetry and rests on the com- mon Germanic tradition. Its essential principles, as observed in the present translation, may be stated as follows. The single verse consists of two obvious half- verses, each of which has two stressed syllables ; and these stressed syllables of the verse must be also accented syllables of the word, — as in modern, but not as in clas- sical metres. The first stressed syllable of the second half — third of the whole — is the "rime-giver." With 1 J. R. Clark Hall, Beowulf, p. 179, quoting Sophus Mtiller.
BEOWULF 17
it must rime one and may rime both of tlie two preceding stressed syllables. The fourth stressed syllable, however, — second in the second half-verse, — must not rime with the third, or rime-giving syllable, but may rime with that one of the other two which happens not to match the rime-giver. For example, in the usual form, —
" Oft Scyld the Scefing from squadroned foes,"
*' foes " rimes with no stressed syllable, as both first and second match the rime-giving third ; but in —
" There laid they down their darling lord,"
a cross-rime prevails. It must be remembered that all vowels rime with one another: so, —
" ice-flecked, outbound, atheling's barge."
By observing these rules in translation, one may count on a rhythmic movement which fairly represents the old verse. The translation, to be sure, must alternate stressed and unstressed syllables with more " regularity " than can be found in the original, which followed rules of detail now impossible to observe. The preponderance of falling rhythm cannot always be maintained, nor can the trans- lator always keep his rimed verse-stresses on the words to which they belong in the old metrical system. But these are not vital objections. Nothing meets the reader in this old rhythm with which he is not familiar in modern poetry ; he recognizes initial rime as an orna- mental factor in verse, though he is not wont to find it the controlling factor.
This same statement holds true of the style of the old epic. Modern poetry has occasional variant repeti- tion ; but repetition is not the controlling factor, the
VI
18 THE OLDEST ENGLISH EPIC
inevitable cross-pattern, as it is in old poetic diction. Modern poetry makes ample use of metaphor; but the practical necessity of " kennings " in alternate statement or epithet is no longer known. Considering now these old factors of poetic style for themselves, one finds that variant repetition is woven into the very stuff of epic ; it is closely allied, as in Hebrew poetry, with the rhyth- mic principle. But our epic verse is continuous, and has no stanzaic balance, no limit, such as exists in He- brew ; so that in oldest English poetry the unrestrained process of variant repetition piles epithet on epithet and phrase on phrase. In Beowulf there have been counted a hundred different appellations for the hero, and fifty-six for King Hrothgar.^ Occasionally there is a " couplet " which resembles the Hebrew:
" To him the stateliest spake in answer ; The warriors' leader his word-hoard unlocked."
On this variant repetition great force is bestowed by the use of metaphor, particularly by " kennings." A ken- ning is where one speaks of the sea as " the whale's road " or " the gannet's bath," — as if the phrase were a "token " of the thing. So in the couplet just quoted, " spake in answer " is literal ; its variant, 'j^unlocked the word-hoard," is metaphorical ; and " word-hoard " is kenning for " thoughts " or " intention." When the reader grows accustomed to this cross-pattern of repetition, — and he has no quarrel with it in its somewhat different guise in the Psalms, — he will appreciate its importance as a factor in the old poetry, and he will not be unduly baffled
1 Illustrations of variant repetition, taken almost at random, are B., 120-125, 2794 f., and 3110 ff. The " couplet " is J5., 268 f.
BEOWULF 19
by its persistence.^ One can easily get rid of it, or sup- press it to the vanishing point, by a prose translation ; but that is not only to renounce real knowledge of the poetical ways of the epic, but to get an utterly false idea of it.
Other features of the style of the epic call for little or no comment. Litotes, or emphasis by understatement, — as when the best of warriors is called " not the worst," — is a prime favorite with the poet of Beowulf ; it can be found on almost every page. The simile occurs a few times, to be sure, but it is an exotic ; and any long simile may be set down as copied from learned sources.
V
No greater mistake exists than to suppose that the rhythm and style of these early English poems cannot be rendered adequately in modern English speech. It is not a question of classical hexameters, but of English verse old and new. As a practical problem solvitur amhulando; one can point to the fact that all the accredited German translations of Beowulf and Finnshurg, with one exception, have been made in the verse of the original ; ^ and this exception is a failure just so far as it fails to give account of verse and style. As a matter of theory nothing is more absurd than to contend that the old system of verse was an art suddenly and utterly lost in the abyss of the Norman Conquest. To be sure, its exact prosody could not survive changes in linguistic structure ; compromises with
^ Now aud then it is puzzling, as when it seems to make two persons out of one : see B., 688 f. ; 1866 f. ; 2129 f.
2 Heyne's is in blank verse. The latest of the German translations, that of Professor Gering, gives the four-stress verse with admirable effect, retains the rime, and in itself refutes the charge of the prosemen.
20 THE OLDEST ENGLISH EPIC
foreign forms of verse took it into new ways, and sent it, say as " tumbling verse," down to our own time, justified by such a line as Browning's
" Seethed in fat and suppled in flame "...
yet in its own person it passed the stage of the conquest, kept its vigor, suffered few notable changes, and appears as a popular and effective verse, some six centuries from the date of the original Beowulf^ in the Piers Plowman poems. Englishmen of that day had ears to hear " rum- ram-ruf " in no mocking spirit, as well as to greet the harmonious flow of Chaucer's pentameter. That very pentameter, too, reveals from time to time in the actual four-stress tendency, and, — though not so often, — in its initial rimes, a hint of the old rhythmic structure :
" Ther shyveren shaf tes upon sheeldes thikke "...
In short, if the two systems — old four-stressed initial- rimed and new pentameter — could appeal to the same hearers, and if Chaucer is now the delight for lovers of verse that he was in his own day, there should be no difficulty for modern ears to allow the dual presence. William Morris employed something akin to the old rhythm in parts of his charming Love is Enough:
" For as lone as thou liest in a land that we see not, When the world loseth thee, what is left for its losing ? "
Yet, apart from its haphazard and unregulated initial rimes, this rhythm is far too swift in its pace for the old verse. Professor J. L. Hall used it for his translation of Beowulf very effectively ; but though he curbed it here and there, it is still too rapid, and the initial rimes are not fully carried out. The translation of Beowulf by Morris and Wyatt cannot be called an improvement on
BEOWULF 21
Professor Hall's translation, for their vocabulary is archaic or invented to an intolerable degree, and the rimes are not followed on any fixed principle. However, the pres- ent writer's business lies not at all with the criticism of verse-translations of Beowulf ; his affair consists in pre- senting to modern readers a rendering, faithful as he can make it, of the entire body of oldest traditional narrative poetry in English, as handed down by the minstrel, or as worked over into longer epic form.
BEOWULF
PRELUDE OF THE FOUNDER OF THE DANISH HOUSE
Lo, praise of the prowess of people-kings
of spear-armed Danes, in days long sped,
we have heard, and what honor the athelings "won I
Oft Scyld the Scefing ^ from squadroned foes,
5 from many a tribe, the mead-bench tore, awing the earls. ^ Since erst he lay friendless, a foundling, fate repaid him : for he waxed under welkin, in wealth he throve, till before him the folk, both far and near,
10 who house by the whale-path,^ heard his mandate, gave him gifts : a good king he ! To him an heir was afterward born, a son in his halls, whom heaven * sent to favor the folk, feeling their woe
1 English historians knew the story or mj^th of this Scyld (" Shield"), who as a helpless child drifts ashore in an oarless boat. The boat is filled with weapons, but a "sheaf" of grain serves as pillow for the little sleeper ; and hence the people call him Shield the Sheaf-Child. They make him their king. He ruled, so William of Malmesbury says, " where Heithebi stands, once called Slaswic." The term "Sheaf-Child" came to be misunderstood as "Child of Sheaf," and Scyld was furnished with a father, Scef or Sceaf .
* An ' earl " was the freeman, the warrior in a chosen band ; though not yet indicating specific rank, the word carried a general idea of nobil- ity.
3 Kenning for " sea." Tribes across the water, say in southern Sweden, or westward of the Danish lands in Zealand, became tributary to Scyld.
* Literally, " God."
22
BEOWULF 23
15 that erst they had lacked an earl for leader so long a while ; the Lord endowed him, the Wielder of Wonder, with world's renown. Famed was this Beowulf : ^ far flew the boast of
him, son of Scyld, in the Scandian lands.
20 So 2 becomes it a youth ^ to quit him well with his father's friends, by fee and gift, that to aid him, ag^d, in after days, come warriors willing, should war draw nigh, liegemen loyal: by lauded deeds
26 shall an earl l^ave honor in every clan. Forth he fared at the fated moment, sturdy Scyld to the shelter of God.* Then they bore him over to ocean's billow, loving clansmen, as late he charged them,
30 while wielded words the winsome Scyld,
the leader beloved who long had ruled. . . . In the roadstead rocked a ring-dight vessel, ice-flecked, outbound, atheling's barge : there laid they down their darling lord
^ Not, of course, Beowulf the Geat, hero of the epic. Genealogies of Anglo-Saxon kings name this son of Scyld as Beaw, Beo, Bedwig, Bead- wig, Beowinus, etc., all shorter forms or corruptions of a common origi- nal name. The name Beowulf may mean " Wolf-of-the-Croft " (Gering), but its etymology is uncertain.
'^ Sc. "as Scyld did." Beowulf's coming fame is mentioned, so to speak, as part of Scyld's assets, and the whole passage is praise of the "pious founder " of the Danish line.
8 The Exeter Maxims, vv. 14 f., say :
Let the atheling young by his honest comrades be emboldened to battle and breaking of rings, — i.e. liberal gifts to his clansmen.
* To heaven, the other world. Various metaphors are used for death ; e.g. "he chose the other light." See also v. 2469.
24 THE OLDEST ENGLISH EPIC
35 on the breast of the boat, the breaker-of -rings,* by the mast the mighty one. Many a treasure fetched from far was freighted with him. No ship have I known so nobly dight with weapons of war and weeds of battle,^
40 with breastplate and blade : on his bosom lay a heaped hoard that hence should go far o'er the flood with him floating away. No less ^ these loaded the lordly gifts, thanes' huge treasure, than those had done
45 who in former time forth had sent him sole on the seas, a suckling child. High o'er his head they hoist the standard, a gold-wove banner ; let billows take him, gave him to ocean. Grave were their spirits,
50 mournful their mood. No man is able to say in sooth, no son of the halls, no hero 'neath heaven, — who harbored that freight ! *
^ Kenning for king or chieftain of a comilatus : he breaks off gold from the spiral rings — often worn on the arm — and so rewards his followers. In jElfric's famous Colloquy, early in the eleventh century, the huntsman says he sometimes gets gift of a horse or an arm-ring from his king.
2 Professor Garnett's rendering.
^ The poet's favorite figure of litotes or understatement. He means that the treasure which they sent out with the dead king far exceeded what came with him in the boat that brought him, a helpless child, to their shores.
* While the reader should guard against putting into these effective lines sentiment and suggestion which they do not really contain, he should compare this close with the close of Tennyson's Morte (V Arthur. The classical passage for ship-burial among the old Germans is the descrip- tion of Balder's funeral in the prose Edda. On the " greatest of all ships" was laid the corpse of the god ; and a balefire was made there ; and rings, and costly trappings, and Balder' s own horse, were consumed along with the body.
BEOWULF 26
I
Now Beowulf bode in the burg of the Scyldings,
leader belovdd, and long he ruled 55 in fame with all folk, since his father had gone
away from the world, till awoke an heir,
haughty Healfdene, who held through life,
sage and sturdy, the Scyldings glad.i
Then, one after one, there woke to him, 60 to the chieftain of clansmen, children four:
Heorogar, then Hrothgar, then Halga brave;
and I heard that was 's queen,^
the Heathoscylfing's helpmate dear.
To Hrothgar ^ was given such glory of war, 65 such honor of combat, that all his kin
obeyed him gladly till great grew his band
of youthful comrades. /It came in his mind
to bid his henchmen a Hall uprear,
a master mead-house, mightier far 70 than ever was seen by the sons of earth,
and within it, then, to old and young
he would all allot that the Lord had sent him,
save only the land * and the lives of his men.
1 If gl<zde is adverb, read : \J/ - ,
Haughty Healfdene : hardy and wise, (V ^v.; ^
though old, he graciously governed the Scyldings. The name " Halfdane " means that his mother was foreign born.
2 "I heard," the epic formula, often has a merely conjunctive force, as here, when it may be rendered, as Klaeber notes, "and further." — ■ The name of the daughter is lost ; no suggestion so far has enough weight to gain preference. The " Battle-Scylfings " are the race known in Scandinavian annals as Ynglings, a Swedish people. Kluge, using the Saga of Hrolf Kraki, reads: " Sigeneow was Saewela's queen."
' Heorogar's reign, noted below, vv. 405, 2158, is here passed over by the poet, who wishes to come at once to the story.
^Literally, "folk's share." Gering translates " all that God had given him along with his land and his people."
iA
26 THE OLDEST ENGLISH EPIC >'t'
Wide, I heard, was the work commanded, 75 for many a tribe this mid-earth round,
to fashion the folkstead. It fell, as he ordered,
in rapid achievement that ready it stood there, I of halls the noblest: Heorot ^ he named it
whose message had might in many a land. 80 Not reckless of promise, the rings he dealt,
treasure at banquet: there towered the hall,
high, gabled wide, the hot surge waiting '■ of furious flame. 2 Nor far was that day
when father and son-in-law stood in feud 85 for warfare and hatred that woke again. ^
1 That is, " The Hart," or "The Stag," so called from decorations in the gables that resembled the antlers of a deer. This hall has been carefully described in a pamphlet by Heyne. The building was rectangular, with opposite doors — mainly west and east — and a hearth in the middle of the single room. A row of pillars down each side, at some distance from the walls, made a space which was raised a little above the main floor, and was furnished with two rows of seats. On one side, usually south, was the high-seat, midway between the doors. Opposite this, on the other raised space, was another seat of honor. At the banquet soon to be de- scribed, Hrothgar sat in the south or chief high-seat, and Beowulf op- posite to him. The scene for a flyting (see below, v. 499) was thus very effectively set. Planks on trestles — the "board "of later English literature — formed the tables just in front of the long rows of seats, and were taken away after banquets, when the retainers were ready to stretch themselves out for sleep on the benches. Some additional com- ment will be found in the excellent notes in Mr. Clark Hall's translation of Beowulf, p. 174.
2 Fire was the usual end of these halls. See v. 781, below. One thinks of the splendid scene at the end of the Xibelungen, of the Xialssaga, of Saxo's story of Amlethus, and many a less famous instance.
' It is to be supposed that all hearers of this poem knew how Hroth- gar's hall was burnt, — perhaps in the unsuccessful attack made on him by his son-in-law Ingeld. See vv. 2020 ff., and the note, where Beowulf tells of an old feud which this marriage is to set aside, and hints that the trouble will not be cured even by such a remedy. He too thinks that " warfare and hatred will wake again." — See also Widsith, vv. 45 5.
I
K
BEOWULF 27
With envy and anger an evil spirit
endured the dole in his dark abode,
that he heard each day the din of revel
high in the hall : there harps rang out, 90 clear song of the singer. He sang who knew ^
tales of the early time of man,
how the Almighty made the earth,
fairest fields enfolded by water,
set, triumphant, sun and moon 95 for a light to lighten the land-dwellers,
and braided bright the breast of earth
with limbs and leaves, made life for all
of mortal beings that breathe and move. So lived the clansmen in cheer and revel 100 a winsome life, till one began
to fashion evils, that fiend of hell.
Grendel this monster grim was called,
march-riever ^ mighty, in moorland living,^
in fen and fastness ; fief of the giants 105 the hapless wight a while had kept
since the Creator his exile doomed.
On kin of Cain was the killing avenged yby sovran God for slaughtered Abel.
1 A skilled minstrel. The Danes are heathens, as one is told presently; but this lay of beginnings is taken from Genesis.
2 A disturber of the border, one who sallies from his haunt in the fen and roams over the country near by. This probably pagan nuisance is now furnished with biblical credentials as a fiend or devil in good stand- ing, so that all Christian Englishmen might read about him. " Grendel " may mean one who grinds and crushes.
8 See notes below on the notion of a water-hell. " Hell and the lower world," says Bugge, " were connected to some extent in the popular mind with deep or boundless morasses." Home, of the Eddie Poems, tr. Scho- field, p. Isxiv.
28 THE OLDEST ENGLISH EPIC
111 fared his feud,i ^nd far was he driven, 110 for the slaughter's sake, from sight of men. Of Cain awoke all that woful breed, Etins 2 and elves and evil-spirits, as well as the giants that warred with God weary while : but their wage was paid them I
II
115 Went he forth to find at fall of night that haughty house, and heed wherever the Ring-Danes, outrevelled, to rest had gone. Found within it the atheling band asleep after feasting and fearless of sorrow,
120 of human hardship. Unhallowed wight, grim and greedy, he grasped betimes, wrathful, reckless, from resting-places, thirty ^ of the thanes, and thence he rushed fain of his fell spoil, faring homeward,
125 laden with slaughter, his lair to seek.
Then at the dawning, as day was breaking, the might of Grendel to men was known ; then after wassail was wail uplifted, loud moan in the morn. The mighty chief,
1 Cain's.
2 The eoten, Norse jotun, or giant, survives in the English ballad-title, Hind Etin. The "giants" of v. 113 come from Genesis, vi, 4. See also the apocrjrphal book of Enoch, noted by Kittredge, Paul und Braune's Beitrdge, xiii, 210, who accounts for this tradition that Cain was the ancestor of evil monsters.
3 Beowulf, the coming champion, has the strength (v. 379) of " thirty " men iu his hand's grasp, and (v. 2361) swims to safety after Hygelac's defeat laden with " thirty " suits of mail on his aim. The reader will note the meagreness and haste of this account of the actual attack. No details are given. This brevity is of course due to the poet ; and one can only guess at his motive.
X
BEOWULF 29
1^30 atheling excellent, unblithe sat,
labored in woe for the loss of his thanes,
when once had been traced the trail of the fiend,
spirit accurst : too cruel that sorrow,
too long, too loathsome. 1 Not late the respite ;
135 with night returning, anew began ruthless murder ; he recked no whit, firm in his guilt, of the feud and crime. They were easy to find who elsewhere sought in room remote their rest at night,
140 _ bed in the bo wers,^ when that bale was shown, was seen in sooth, with surest token, — the hall-thane's^ hate. Such held themselves far and fast who the fiend outran ! Thus ruled unrighteous and raged his fill
145 one against all ; until empty stood
that lordly building, and long it bode so. Twelve years' tide the trouble he bore, sovran of Scyldings, sorrows in plenty, boundless cares. There came unhidden
150 tidings true to the tribes of men,
in sorrowful songs,* how ceaselessly Grendel harassed Hrothgar, what hate he bore him, what murder and massacre, many a year, feud unfading, — refused consent
1 See V. 191. \ 2 The smaller buildings within the main enclosure but separate from the hall.
3 So the text. Grendel, by his ravaging, is master of the hall ; and there is no need to change to " hell-thane."
* The journalists of the day, Widsiths, Deors, Bernlefs, carried such tidings in their " sorrowful son^s." So, too, perhaps, began the story of the actual downfall of the Burgundian kings, afterward the epic of the Nibelungs.
30 THE OLDEST ENGLISH EPIC
155 to deal with any of Daneland's earls,
make pact of peace, or compound for gold : still less did the wise men ween to get great fee for the feud from his fiendish hands.* But the evil one ambushed old and young,
160 death-shadow dark, and dogged them still, lured, and lurked in the livelong night of misty moorlands : men may say not where the haunts of these Hell-Runes ^ be. Such heaping of horrors the hater of men,
165 lonely roamer, wrought unceasing,
harassings heavy. O'er Heorot he lorded, gold-bright hall, in gloomy nights ; and ne'er could the prince^ approach his throne, — 'twas judgment of God, — or have joy in his hall.
170 Sore was the sorrow to Scyldings'-friend, heart-rending miser3^ Many nobles sat assembled, and searched out counsel how it were best for bold-hearted men against harassing terror to try their hand.
175 Whiles they vowed in their heathen fanes altar-offerings, asked with words* that the slayer-of-souls^ would succor give them for the pain of their people. Their practice this,
1 He would of course pay no wergild for the men he had slain. So boasted a Norse bully once.
2 " Sorcerers-of-hell." Bune is still used in Low German dialects for " witch."
8 Hrothgar, who is the " Scyldings'-friend " of 170- A difficult passage.
* That is, in formal or prescribed phrase.
6 In Psalm xcvi, 5 (Grein-Wiilker, n-umber 95) : " All the gods of the nations are idols, but the X,ord made the heavens." The Anglo-Saxon version reads : '" All heathen gods are devils-of-war." . . .
BEOWULF 31
their heathen hope ; 'twas Hell they thought of 180 in mood of their mind. Almighty they knew not, Doomsman of Deeds ^ and dreadful Lord, nor Heaven's-Helmet heeded they ever, Wielder-of- Wonder. — Woe for that man who in harm and hatred hales his soul 185 to fiery embraces ; — nor favor nor change awaits he ever. But well for him ♦ that after death-day may draw to his Lord, and friendship find in the Father's arms!
Ill
Thus seethed ^ unceasing the son of Healfdene 190 with the woe of these days; not wisest men assuaged his sorrow; too sore the anguish, loathly and long, that lay on his folk, most baneful of burdens and bales of the night.
This heard in his home Hygelac's thane, 196 great among Geats, of Grendel's doings. He was the mightiest man of valor in that same day of this our life, stalwart and stately. A stout wave-walker he bade make ready. ^ Yon Dattle-king, said he, 200 far o'er the swan-road he fain would seek, the noble monarch who needed men !
* The complimentary excess of kennings for "God" is like the pro- fusion in naming king or chieftain. See v. 345 f.
2 How fast-colored this metaphor remained for poets it is hard to say. Certainly " bore" or " suffered " is too pale a rendering.
3 This verse, rimed in modern fashion, must represent v. 194 of the original, which runs :
Thset fram hSm gefrsegn HygelS.ces thegn, . . .
32 THE OLDEST ENGLISH EPIC
The prince's journey by prudent folk
was little blamed, though they loved him dear ;
they whetted the hero, and hailed good omens.*
205 And now the bold one from bands of Geats comrades chose, the keenest of warriors e'er he could find; with fourteen men ^ the sea-wood ^ he sought, and, sailor ^ proved, led them on to the land's confines.
210 Time had now flown; ^ afloat was the ship, boat under bluff. On board they climbed, warriors ready; waves were churning sea with sand; the sailors bore on the breast of the bark their bright array,
216 their mail and weapons: the men pushed off, on its willing way, the well-braced craft. Then moved o'er the waters by might of the wind that bark like a bird with breast of foam, till in season due, on the second day,
220 the curved prow such course had run
^ Literally, "looked about for signs and omens"; but by implication the omens are good. Many of these old customs are preserved in tradition or by record ; and the chapter of Tacitus's Germania is familiar which describes one of them in detail. By Hygelac's own account (vv. 1094 ff. ) the friends of Beowulf did try to hold him back from his perilous undertaking.
2 In the language of the original, and of modem golf, Beowulf goes on a " fifteen-some," as one of fifteen.
8 Ship.
* In the Nibelungen Lay one is told that Siegfried — also a slayer of dragons and a winner of gold — is a good sailor (367, 3) :
Die rehten wazzerstrS,ze sint mir wol bekant.
In the next stanza the start of the ship is described ; and Siegfried him- self helps to push off from shore, using " a pole."
^ That is, since Beowulf selected his ship and led his men to the harbor.
BEOWULF 33
that sailors now could see the land,
sea-cliffs shining, steep high hills,
headlands broad. Their haven was found,
their journey ended. Up then quickly 226 the Weders' ^ clansmen climbed ashore,
anchored their sea-wood, with armor clashing
and gear of battle: God they thanked
for passing in peace o'er the paths of the sea. Now saw from the cliff a Scylding clansman, 230 a warden ^ that watched the water-side,
how they bore o'er the gangway glittering shields,
war-gear in readiness ; wonder seized him
to know what manner of men they were.
Straight to the strand his steed he rode, 235 Hrothgar's henchman ; with hand of might
he shook his spear,^ and spake in parley.
" Who are ye, then, ye armed men,
mailed folk, that yon mighty vessel
have urged thus over the ocean ways, 240 here o'er the waters ? A warden I,
sentinel set o'er the sea-march here,
lest any foe to the folk of Danes
with harrying fleet should harm the land.
No aliens ever at ease thus bore them,
1 One of the auxiliary names of the Geats, who by the reckoning of Bugge, Gering, and others, were Jutes. Jutland, says Gering, is truly called the Wettermark, "the land of storms." Others, a majority, put Geatland in Sweden.
2 Possibly some unconscious reminiscence is here of the Roman coast- guard who once patrolled the Saxon Shore. Saxon pirates would well remember him. The stone-paved street (below, v, 320) points to similar traditions.
3 Literally, "main-wood," "strength-wood." — The warden is not alone, but has with him an armed guard. See v. 293.
34 THE OLDEST ENGLISH EPIC
246 linden-wielders : ^ yet word-of -leave clearly ye lack from clansmen here, my folk's agreement. — A greater ne'er saw I of warriors in world than is one of you, — yon hero in harness ! No henchman he
250 worthied by weapons, if witness his features, his peerless presence ! I pray you, though, tell your folk and home, lest hence ye fare suspect to wander your way as spies in Danish land. Now, dwellers afar,
265 ocean-travellers, take from me
simple advice: the sooner the better I hear of the country whence ye came."
IV
To him the stateliest ^ spake in answer ;
the warriors' leader his word-hoard unlocked : — 260 " We are by kin of the clan of Geats,
and Hygelac's own hearth-fellows we.
To folk afar was my father known,
noble atheling, Ecgtheow named.
Full of winters, he fared away 265 aged from earth ; he is honored still
through width of the world by wise men all.
To thy lord and liege in loyal mood
we hasten hither, to Healfdene's son,
people-protector : be pleased to advise us ! 270 To that mighty-one come we on mickle errand,
1 Or : Not thus openly ever came warriors hither ; yet . . .
2 Literally, " Him the oldest answered." Compare modem uses of elder and alderman.
BEOWULF 35
to the lord of the Danes ; nor deem I right
that aught be hidden. We hear — thou knowest
if sooth it is — the saying of men,
that amid the Scyldings a scathing monster,
275 dark ill-doer, in dusky nights
shows terrific his rage unmatched,
hatred and murd^T.- To Hrothgar I
in greatness of soul would succor bring,
so the Wise-and-Brave ^ may worst his foes. —
280 if ever the end of ills is fated,
of cruel contest, if cure shall follow,
and the boiling care-waves ^ cooler grow ;
else ever afterward anguish-days
he shall suffer in sorrow while stands in place
286 high on its hill that house unpeered ! "
Astride his steed, the strand-ward answered, clansman unquailing: " The keen-souled thane must be skilled to sever and sunder duly words and works, if he well intends.
290 I gather, this band is graciously bent
to the Scyldings' master. March, then, bearing weapons and weeds the way I show you. I will bid my men your boat meanwhile to guard for fear lest foemen come, —
295 your new-tarred ship by shore of ocean faithfully watching till once again it waft o'er the waters those well -loved thanes, — winding-neck'd wood, — to Weders' bounds, heroes such as the hest of fate
1 Hrothgar.
2 This powerful metaphor is known also in Old-Norse ("sdsbreka," Skirnismal, 29) and in Old-Irish ("tuind mbroin," 'a billow of cares').
— BUGOE.
86 THE OLDEST ENGLISH EPIC
300 shall succor and save from the shock of war."* They bent them to march, — the boat lay still, fettered by cable and fast at anchor, broad-bosomed ship. — Then shone the boars ^ over the cheek-guard ; chased with gold,
306 keen and gleaming, guard it kept
o'er the man of war, as marched along heroes in haste, ^till the hall they saw, broad of gable and bright with gold: that was the fairest, 'mid folk of earth,
310 of houses 'neath heaven, where Hrothgar lived, and the gleam of it lightened o'er lands afarj The sturdy shieldsman showed that bright burg-of-the-boldest ; bade them go straightway thither ; his steed then turned,
315 hardy hero, and hailed them thus : —
" 'Tis time that I fare from you. Father Almighty in grace and mercy guard you well, safe in your seekings. Seaward I go, 'gainst hostile warriors hold my watch."
* See Klaeber, Modern Philology, III, 250. In other words, the ship will carry back the survivors. Other translators take " the well-loved man " to be Beowulf, and read :
for hero like him, by hest of fate
shall surely fare from the fight unscathed.
2 Holthausen points out that by verse 1453 Beowulf's helmet has sev- eral boar-images on it ; he is the "man of war" (to be sure, a conjec- tural reading); and the boar-helmet guards him as typical representative of the marching party as a whole. The boar was sacred to Freyr, who was the favorite god of the Germanic tribes about the North Sea and the Baltic. Rude representations of warriors show the boar on the helmet quite as large as the helmet itself.
BEOWULF 37
V
320 Stone-bright the street : ^ it showed the way to the crowd of clansmen. Corselets glistened hand-forged, hard ; on their harness bright the steel ring sang,^ as they strode along in mail of battle, and marched to the hall.
326 There, weary of ocean, the wall along
they set their bucklers, their broad shields, down, and bowed them to bench: the breastplates clanged, war-gear of men ; their weapons stacked, spears of the seafarers stood together,
330 gray-tipped ash : that iron band
was worthily weaponed ! — A warrior proud asked of the heroes their home and kin. " Whence, now, bear ye burnished shields, harness gray and helmets grim,
335 spears in multitude ? Messenger, I, Hrothgar's herald ! Heroes so many ne'er met I as strangers of mood so strong. 'Tis plain that for prowess, not plunged into exile, for high-hearted valor, Hrothgar ye seek! "
340 Him the sturdy-in-war bespake with words, proud earl of the Weders answer made, hardy 'neath helmet : — " Hygelac's, we,
1 Either merely paved, the strata via of the Romans, or else thought of W as a sort of mosaic, an extravagant touch like the reckless waste of gold
\on the vealls and roofs of a hall. — Stone buildings, it will be noted, are for old English poetry a mystery, a legacy of the past and its demi-gods — " work of giants" ; for prose they pass as fit only for kings. Asser in his Life of Alfred (ed. Stevenson, 91, 23, and p. 154) calls them viUae regiae. The common Germanic hatred of cities and of stone houses is familiar from the rhetoric of Tacitus.
2 See Finnsburg, vv. 7 f. for a more striking personification.
38 THE OLDEST ENGLISH EPIC
fellows at board ; I am Beowulf named. I am seeking to say to the son of Healfdene
345 this mission of mine, to thy master-lord, the doughty prince, if he deign at all grace that we greet him, the good one, now." Wulfgar spake, the Wendles' chieftain, whose might of mind to many was known,
360 his courage and counsel : " The king of Danes, the Scyldings' friend, I fain will tell, the Breaker-of-Rings, as the boon thou askest, the famed prince, of thy faring hither, and, swiftly after, such answer bring
355 as the doughty monarch may deign to give." Hied then in haste to where Hrothgar sat white-haired and old, his earls about him, till the stout thane stood at the shoulder ^ there of the Danish king : good courtier he I
360 Wulfgar spake to his winsome lord: — " Hither have fared to thee far-come men o'er the paths of ocean, people of Geatland; and the stateliest ^ there by his sturdy band is Beowulf named. This boon they seek,
366 that they, my master, may with thee
have speech at will: nor spurn their prayer
to give them hearing, gracious Hrothgar !
In weeds of the warrior worthy they,
methinks, of our liking ; their leader most surely,
370 a hero that hither his henchmen has led."
1 ' ' Before the shoulders, ' ' whatever position this was. Gering : " at the left shoulder of the lord of the land."
2 Literally, " oldest." See above, v. 258.
BEOWULF 39
VI
Hrothgar answered, helmet of Scyldings: — " I knew him of yore in his youthful days ; his aged father was Ecgtheow named, to whom, at home, gave Hrethel the Geat
375 his only daughter. ^ Their offspring bold fares hither to seek the steadfast friend. And seamen, too, have said me this, — who carried my gifts to the Geatish court, thither for thanks, — he has thirty men's
380 heft of grasp in the gripe of his hand, the bold-in-battle. Blessed God out of his mercy this man hath sent to Danes of the West, as I ween indeed, against horror of Grendel. I hope to give
386 the good youth gold for his gallant thought. Be thou in haste, and bid them hither, clan of kinsmen, to come before me; and add this word, — they are welcome guests to folk of the Danes."
[To the door of the hall__
390 Wulfgar went 2] and the word declared: — " To you this message my master sends, East-Danes' king, that your kin he knows,
1 It is point of honor In the sovran — and the late Queen Victoria was proud of her accomplishment in this respect — to know all the nobles and royal persons in their relationship and descent. So Hildebrand, try- ing to make his son believe that the paternal claim is true, asks to be put to the test of genealogies and kinship : "If thou namest one only, the others I know." The loquacity of Hrothgar is both the royal leisurely way, and also an attempt of the poet to characterize the king, and set him apart.
2 Grein's insertion to mend an evident omission of the scribe.
40 THE OLDEST ENGLISH EPIC
hardy heroes, and hails you all
welcome hither o'er waves of the sea I 396 Ye may wend your way in war-attire,
and under helmets Hrothgar greet;
but let here the battle-shields bide your parley,
and wooden war-shafts wait its end."
Uprose the mighty one, ringed with his men, 400 brave band of thanes : some bode without,
battle-gear guarding, as bade the chief.
Then hied that troop where the herald led them,
under Heorot's roof: [the hero strode,] ^
hardy 'neath helm, till the hearth he neared.^ 405 Beowulf spake, — his breastplate gleamed,
war-net woven by wit of the smith : —
" Thou Hrothgar, hail ! Hygelac's I,
kinsman and follower. Fame a plenty
have I gained in youth ! ^ These Grendel-deeds 410 I heard in my home-land heralded clear. I Seafarers say * how stands this hall, I of buildings best, for your band of thanes
1 Grein's insertion.
2 " Hardy beneath his helmet" is a common phrase in epic description. See above, v. 296, and Nibelungen, under hehne gctn, in many places. — The hearth, always in the middle of the hall, would be close to the throne, as Heyne points out in his essay on the situation and structure of Heorot, referring to an Anglo-Saxon document of the eleventh century. ' ' Hearth ' ' is more specific and better visualized than the mere "interior" of some readings,
3 So all the old epic heroes ; they have no passion for modesty.
Sum pius Aeneas fama super aethera notus, -^ '
is more vigorous trumpeting than even this blast from Beowulf. Dryden notes in his Essay on Dramatic Poetry that only the later heroes made anything of reticence as a manly virtue.
*See above, v. 377, and Hildehrand, v. 44. These "seafarers" are not necessarily sailors by profession, but any persons who fare over sea aud bring the news ; cf. v. 1818, «' we seafarers " = Beowulf and his men.
BEOWULF 41
I empty and idle, when evening sun Un the harbor of heaven is hidden away. 415 So my vassals advised me well, —
brave and wise, the best of men, —
O sovran Hrothgar, to seek thee here,
for my nerve and my might they knew full well.
Themselves had seen me from slaughter come 420 blood-flecked from foes, where five I bound,
and that wild brood worsted. I' the waves I slew
nicors ^ by night, in need and peril
avenging the Weders,^ whose woe they sought, —
crushing the grim ones. Grendel now, 425 monster cruel, be mine to quell
in single battle ! So, from thee,
thou sovran of the Shining-Danes,
Scyldings'-bulwark, a boon I seek, —
and, Friend-of-the-folk, refuse it not, 430 O Warriors'-shield, now I've wandered far, —
that I alone with my liegemen here,
this hardy band, may Heorot purge !
More I hear, that the monster dire,
^ The nicor, says Bugge, is a hippopotamus ; a walrus, says ten Brink. But that water-goblin who covers the space from Old Nick of jest to the Neckan and Nix of poetry and tale, is all one needs, and Nicor is a good name for him. Dan Michel in the fourteenth century renders sirens or sea-fairies by this word nicor. A glance, too, at Vigfusson's Icelandic Dictionary, s.v. " Nykr," is instructive. To square this story with vv. 550 ff., below, many emendations are proposed ; but figures may be changed even in hunting-stories. Moreover, see w. 574-7. There was genuine fear of sea-beasts among these men of the coast, and Horace's nionstra natantia (I, iii, 18) would have appealed to them as no matter for jests. They enhance the horror of Nicor's Mere, below, v. 1425. Whales are specified in v. 541 as objects of fear ; see note to v. 549.
2 His own people, the Geats.
42 THE OLDEST ENGLISH EPIC
in his wanton mood, of weapons recks not; 435 hence shall I scorn — so Hygelac stay,
king of my kindred, kind to me ! —
brand or buckler to bear in the fight,
gold-colored targe : but with gripe alone
must I front the fiend and fight for life, _
440 foe against foe. Then faith be his ^
in the doom of the Lord whom death shall take.
Fain, I ween, if the fight he win,
in this hall of gold my Geatish band
will he fearless eat, — as oft before, — 445 my noblest thanes.^ Nor need'st thou then
to hide my head ; ^ for his shall I be,
dyed in gore, if death must take me ;
and my blood-covered body he'll bear as prey,
ruthless devour it, the roamer-lonely, 450 with my life-blood redden his lair in the fen :
no further for me need'st food prepare ! *
To Hygelac send, if Hild ^ should take me,
best of war-weeds, warding my breast,
1 Klaeber, with Earle : "he shall resign himself to the judgment." It is a kind of trial by battle ; and perhaps the sense is that the one who falls in the fight may well have cause to believe in God's justice. But the common aud ancient belief that " Wyrd goes as she must " is in the background.
2 Literally, "the flower of my men" (Schiicking) ; it is parallel to "Geatish band." This interpretation removes grave difficulties from the passage. " As oft before " is a general and pregnant phrase referring to Grendel's previous attacks on the Danish clansmen.
3 That is, cover it as with a face-cloth. " There will be no need of funeral rites."
* The fondness for emphasis by understatement — litotes — here takes the form of anticlimax.
^ Personification of Battle. That personal and mythological force lingers in the word seems clear from its uses in poetry.
BEOWULF 43
armor excellent, heirloom of Hrethel 466 and work of Wayland.^ Fares Wyrd^ as she must."
VII
Hrothgar spake, the Scyldings'-helmet : — " For fight defensive, Friend my Beowulf, to succor and save, thou hast sought us here. Thy father's combat ^ a feud enkindled
460 when Heatholaf with hand he slew among the Wylfings; his Weder kin for horror of fighting feared to hold him. Fleeing, he sought our South-Dane folk, over surge of ocean the Honor-Scyldings,
465 when first I was ruling the folk * of Danes, wielded, youthful, this widespread realm, this hoard-hold of heroes. Heorogar was dead, my elder brother, had breathed his last, Healf dene's bairn: he was better than I !
470 Straightway the feud with fee ^ I settled, to the Wylfings sent, o'er watery ridges, treasures olden : oaths he ^ swore me.
1 The Germanic Vulcan. See below, Deor''s Song, and notes.
2 Compare the personifying force in a phrase of the Heliand, "Thy Wyrd stands near thee," — thy fated hour is nigh. This mighty power, whom the Christian poet can still revere, has here the general force of " Destiny." Chaucer glosses the plural {Wirdes) as Destiny, but Mac- beth has no doubt of the "personification" when he meets the Weird- Sisters, that is, sister fates.
2 There is no irrelevance here. Hrothgar sees in Beowulf's mission a heritage of duty, a return of the good offices which the Danish king ren- dered to Beowulf's father in time of dire need. — F. Seebohm, Tribal Cus- toms in Anglo-Saxon Laxo, London, 1902, comments on this ethical side of the feud, and makes great use of the material in Beowulf.
* Repeated from v. 463, also in the original.
' Money, for wergild, or man-price. ' Ecgtheow, Beowulf's sire.
44 THE OLDEST ENGLISH EPIC
Sore is my soul to say to any
of the race of man what ruth for me 475 in Heorot Grendel with hate hath wrought,
what sudden harry ings. Hall-folk fail me,
my warriors wane ; for Wyrd hath swept them
into Grendel's grasp. But God is able
this deadly foe from his deeds to turn ! 480 Boasted full oft, as my beer they drank,
earls o'er the ale-cup, armed men, ■ that they would bide in the beer-hall here,
Grendel's attack with terror of blades.^ ^Then was this mead-house at morning tide 485 dyed with gore, when the daylight broke,
all the boards of the benches blood-besprinkled,
gory the hall : I had heroes the less,
doughty dear-ones that death had reft.
— But sit to the banquet, unbind thy words, 490 hardy hero, as heart shall prompt thee."
Gathered together, the Geatish men in the banquet-hall on bench assigned, sturdy-spirited, sat them down, hardy-hearted. A henchman attended, 496 carried the carven cup in hand,
served the clear mead. Oft minsjtrels sang
blithe in Heorot. Heroes revelled,
no dearth of warriors,^ Weder and Dane.
1 " With terrible blades," — drawn swords. — " Boast " is not used in the modern sense, nor was it "Dutch courage" that inspired the utter- ance. As in the Indian war-dance, so at the Germanic feast in hall or camp before battle, the warrior was expected to make his be6t or promise of prowess, — and to keep it. 1 hese vaunts easily lent themselves to jocose treatment in the declining days of epic or romance ; witness the famous "gabs" in Charlemagne'' s Journey to Jerusalem.
2 In spite of v. 476, Hrothgar still has a large band of retainers.
BEOWULF 45
VIII
Unferth ^ spake, the son of Ecglaf, 500 who sat at the feet of the Scyldings' lord,
unbound the battle-runes.^ — Beowulf's quest,
^sturdy seafarer's, sorely galled him ;
ever he envied that other men ' "^
should more achieve in middle-earth 605 of fame under heaven than he himself. —
" Art thou that Beowulf, Breca's rival,
who emulous swam on the open sea,
when for pride the pair of you proved the floods,
and wantonly dared in waters deep 510 to risk your lives ? No living man,
or lief or loath, from your labor dire
could you dissuade, from swimming the main.
Ocean-tides with your arms ye covered,
with strenuous hands the sea-streets measured, 615 swam o'er the waters. Winter's storm
rolled the rough waves. In realm of sea
a sennight strove ye. In swimming he topped thee,
had more of main ! Him at morning-tide
billows bore to the Battling Reamas,^
1 Spelled Hunferth in the text, but ahvaj-s riming with vowels.
2 "Began the fight." — But here is scarcely the flyting, or song-con- test, found everywhere among peoples in a primitive stage of culture. It is rather a report of the spirited way in which Beowulf carried off the laurels in the " hazing" of the guest by a competent official of the host. Probably this test was part of the formal reception ; but it seems a strange survival in epic by the side of the courtly and extravagant com- pliments exchanged between Beowulf and Hrothgar. In Scandinavian sources one gets the rough flyting in its coarseness and strength. See the Lokasenna, above all, and the cases reported by Saxo. In one the prizes are peculiar: a queen's necklace, the man's life.
^ Bugge places the home of these Heathoreamas in Southern Norway. He also notes a parallel swimming-match in the Egilssaga.
46 THE OLDEST ENGLISH EPIC
620 whence he hied to his home so dear,
beloved of his liegemen, to land of Brondings, fastness fair, where his folk he ruled, town and treasure. In triumph o'er thee Beanstan's bairn ^ his boast achieved.
525 So ween I for thee a worse adventure
— though in buffet of battle thou brave hast been, in struggle grim, — if Grendel's approach thou darst await through the watch of night ! "
Beowulf spake, bairn of Ecgtheow : — 630 " What a deal hast uttered, dear my Unferth,
drunken with beer, of Breca now,
told of his triumph ! Truth I claim it,
that I had more of might in the sea
than any man else, more ocean-endurance. 636 We twain had talked, in time of youth,
and made our boast, — we were merely boys,
striplings still, — to stake our lives
far at sea : and so we performed it.
Naked swords, as we swam along, 640 we held in hand, with hope to guard us
against the whales. Not a whit from me
could he float afar o'er the flood of waves,
haste o'er the billows ; nor him I abandoned.
Together we twain on the tides abode 645 five nights full till the flood divided us,
churning waves and chillest weather,
darkling night, and the northern wind
ruthless rushed on us : rough was the surge.
Now the wrath of the sea-fish ^ rose apace ;
1 Breca.
2 Partly founded on actual experience of angry whales, as York Powell pointed out, and partly on doings of mythical beasts of the sea.
BEOWULF 47
550 yet me 'gainst the monsters my mailed coat, hard and hand-linked, help afforded, — battle-sark braided my breast to ward, garnished with gold. There grasped me firm and haled me to bottom the hated foe,
665 with grimmest gripe. 'Twas granted me, though, to pierce the monster with point of sword, with blade of battle : huge beast of the sea was whelmed by the hurly through hand of mine.
IX
Me thus often the evil monsters 560 thronging threatened. With thrust of my sword,
the darling, I dealt them due return !
Nowise had they bliss from their booty then
to devour their victim, vengeful creatures,
seated to banquet at bottom of sea ; 565 but at break of day, by my brand sore hurt,
on the edge of ocean up they lay,
put to sleep by the sword. And since, by them
on the fathomless sea-ways sailor-folk
are never molested. — Light from east, 570 came bright God's beacon; the billows sank,
so that I saw the sea-cliffs high,
windy walls. For Wyrd oft saveth
earl undoomed if he doughty be ! ^
^ A Germanic commonplace. It occurs in the Aiidreas of Cynewulf, in part in the Hildebrand Lay, v. 55, and in sundry Norse poems. "Undoomed" is " one who is not fey." — Da sterbent wan die veigen, Nibelungen, 149, "only the fey die," may be compared with the ballad phrase in Archie o' Cawfield, Child, III, 489 ;
48 THE OLDEST ENGLISH EPIC
And so it came that I killed with my sword 675 nine of the nicors. Of night-fought battles
ne'er heard I a harder 'neath heaven's dome,
nor adrift on the deep, a more desolate man!
Yet I came unharmed from that hostile clutch,
though spent with swimming. The sea upbore me, 580 flood of the tide, on Finnish ^ land,
the welling waters. No wise of thee^
have I heard men tell such terror of falchions,
bitter battle. Breca ne'er yet,
not one of you pair, in the play of war 585 such daring deed has done at all
with bloody brand, — I boast not of it ! —
"There'll uo man die but him that's fee. ..."
Schiicking, in Englische Studien, 30, p. 104, insists on a different transla- tion of this passage. " Undoomed," he suggests, is proleptic ; and the poet really says "fate often saves a hero — who then, of course, is not a doomed man, — if he be brave." It is true that the proleptic construc- tion is found in Anglo-Saxon ; and the interpretation is possible. Prac- tically the same case occurs when Horace tells Lydia (III, ix) that he would die for Chloe if the fatee would but spare this love of his and let her live ; —
Si parcent animaefata superstiti.
But the present passage hardly needs this subtle interpretation, and evidently means that fate often spares a man who is not doomed, really devoted to death, if he is a brave man, in a word, favors the brave if favor be possible. Weird sisters and fey folk survived long in Scottish tradition.
1 The Finnish folk, as Gering points out, we now call Laplanders.
2 This speech of Beowulf's is admirable. He has defended his own reputation, shrugs his shoulders at the necessity of referring to his prowess, and makes a home-thrust at Unferth. The climax of his invective is imputation to Unferth of the two supreme sins in the Germanic list : murder of kin, and cowardice. — Below, v. 1167, Unferth is said to be courageous, but faithless to his kin. — Then the hero-orator proceeds to promise or "boast" what he himself will do; and with his cheerful "gab" the speech closes amid general applause.
BEOWULF 49
though thou wast the bane ^ of thy brethren dear,
thy closest kin, whence curse of hell
awaits thee, well as thy wit may serve ! 590 For I say in sooth, thou son of Ecglaf, "^
never had Grendel these grim deeds wrought,
monster dire, on thy master dear,
in Heorot such havoc, if heart of thine
were as battle-bold as thy boast is loud ! 696 But he has found no feud will happen;
from sword-clash dread of your Danish clan
he vaunts him safe, from the Victor-Scyldings.
He forces pledges, favors none
of the land of Danes, but lustily murders, ,
600 fights and feasts, nor feud he dreads
from Spear-Dane men. But speedily now
shall I prove him the prowess and pride of the Geats,
shall bid him battle. Blithe to mead
go he that listeth, when light of dawn 606 this morrow morning o'er men of earth,
ether-robed sun from the south shall beam ! " Joyous then was the Jewel-giver,
hoar-haired, war-brave ; help awaited
the Bright-Danes' prince, from Beowulf hearing, 610 folk's good shepherd, such firm resolve.
Then was laughter of liegemen loud resounding
with winsome words. Came Wealhtheow forth,
1 Murderer. —
"TlMugh thou hast murdered thy mother's sons," —
would translate the passage less directly but without an archaism. — -s Beowulf is glad to think as he dies that he is free from murder ofN\ kin ; see below, v. 2742. The kin-bond, of course, was or should be very strong. See Beda's story of Imma, Eccl. Hist., iv, 22; and Schofield's summary of Signy''8 Lament for the Volsung case.
50 THE OLDEST ENGLISH EPIC
queen of Hrothgar, heedful of courtesy, \ gold-decked, greeting the guests in hall ;
615 and the high-born lady handed the cup first to the East-Danes' heir and warden, bade him be blithe at the beer-carouse, the land's beloved one. Lustily took he banquet and beaker, battle-famed king.
620 Through the hall then went the Helmings'Lady, to younger and older everywhere carried the cup,i till came the moment when the ring-graced queen, the royal-hearted, ^ to Beowulf bore the beaker of mead.
626 She greeted the Geats' lord, God she thanked, in wisdom's words, that her will was granted, that at last on a hero her hope could lean for comfort in terrors. The cup he took, hardy-in-war, from Wealhtheow's hand,
630 and answer uttered the eager-for-combat. Beowulf spake, bairn of Ecgtheow : —
1 Literally, " jewelled- vessel " ; but as Banning points out, this refers simply to the ofiBce of passing the cup, not, as in Widsith, 102, to the giv- ing of " lordly gifts," as some translate the phrase. The Gnomic Verses, preserved in the Exeter Book, are explicit about the duties of a noble dame in such cases. She must be (see Grein-WUlker, I, 346) —
fond of her folk, and full of cheer,
fast in a secret, and free of hand
with steeds and treasure : serving the mead
in the crowd of clansmen, constant alway
Defence-of-Athelings first to gi'eet,
to carry the cup to the king's hand first,
quickly still, and counsel render
ever to him and his heroes all.
The Defence-of-Athelings is, of course, the king. " Steeds and treas- ure " is the usual phrase for "gifts." Wealhtheow answers well to all these requirements.
BEOWULF 61
" This was my thought, when my thanes and I
bent to the ocean and entered our boat,
that I would work the will of your people 635 fully, or fighting fall in death,
in fiend's gripe fast. I am firm to do
an earl's brave deed, or end the days
of this life of mine in the mead-hall here."
Well these words to the woman seemed, 640 Beowulf's battle-boast. — Bright with gold
the stately dame by her spouse sat down, y Again, as erst, began in hall
warriors' wassail and words of power,
the proud-band's revel,i till presently 646 the son of Healfdene hastened to seek
rest for the night ; he knew there waited
fight for the fiend in that festal hall,
when the sheen of the sun they saw no more,
and dusk of night sank darkling nigh, 650 and shadowy shapes came striding on,
wan under welkin. The warriors rose.
Man to man, he made harangue,
Hrothgar to Beowulf, bade him hail,
let him wield the wine hall : a word he added : — 655 " Never to any man erst I trusted,
since I could heave up hand and shield, y this noble Dane-Hall, till now to thee.
1
1 Literally, "clamor of the victorious people." The phrase is formal, '
as in so many cases ; for just now, and in v. 597, any adjective v?ould suit the Danes better than " victorious,"' nor can this count as proleptic. So in the English Ballads there is a false " true love," — i.e. " affianced," — or other contradiction, with similar formal use. Compare the phrase " excellent iron," v. 2586, belovp, for a sv^^ord that has just failed to "'bite."
52 THE OLDEST ENGLISH EPIC
Have now and hold this house unpeered ; remember thy glory ; thy might declare ; 660 watch for the foe! No wish shall fail thee if thou bidest the battle with bold-won life."
X
-V ' Then Hrothgar went with his hero-train, I defence-of-Scyldings, forth from hall ;
fain would the war-lord Wealhtheow seek, 666 couch of his queen. The King-of-Glory
against this Grendel a guard had sefe,
so heroes heard, a hall-defender,
who warded the monarch and watched for the mon- ster.
In truth, the Geats' prince gladly trusted 670 his mettle, his might, the mercy of God! ^
Cast off then his corselet of iron,
helmet from head ; to his henchman gave, — '
choicest of weapons, — the well-chased sword,
bidding him guard the gear of battle. 675 Spake then his Vaunt ^ the valiant man,
Beowulf Geat, ere the bed he sought : —
" Of force in fight no feebler I count me,
in grim war-deeds, than Grendel deems him.
Not with the sword, then, to sleep of death 680 his life will I give, though it lie in my power.
No skill is his to strike against me,
1 See above, vv. 572 f .
2 This Vaunt, or Boast, spoken to the hero's few comrades on the eve of the vigil and fight, is different from the Vaunt at the banquet, and in its sentimental turn has some distant resemblance to the later " Good- Nights," particularly the type of Lord MaxwelVs Last Good-Night.
BEOWULF §3
my shield to hew though he hardy be, bold in battle ; we both, this night, shall spurn the sword, if he seek me here,
685 unweaponed, for war. Let wisest God, sacred Lord, on which side soever doom decree as he deeraeth right." Reclined then the chieftain, and cheek-pillows held the head of the earl, while all about him
690 seamen hardy on hall-beds sank.
None of them thought that thence their steps ' to the folk and fastness that fostered them, to the land they loved, would lead them back! Full well they wist that on warriors many
695 battle-death seized, in the banquet-hall, of Danish clan. But comfort and help, war-weal weaving, to Weder folk the Master gave,^ that, by might of one, over their enemy all prevailed,
700 by single strength. In sooth 'tis told that highest God o'er human kind hath wielded ever ! — Thro' wan night striding, came the walker-in-shadow. Warriors slept whose best was to guard the gabled hall, —
705 all save one. 'Twas widel;y known
that against God's will the ghostly ravager
fi him 2 could not hurl to haunts of darkness ; wakeful, ready, with warrior's wrath, bold he bided the battle's issue.
1 The usual mingling of pagan tradition and Christian doctrine. The weaving, as in classical myths, is work of the Noms, or fates, but God disposes it as he will. Often, however, the Germanic fates stand alone at their loom. " Wyrd wove me this."
2 Beowulf, — the " one." Ms. has " them."
54 THE OLDEST ENGLISH EPIC
XI
710 Then from the moorland, by misty crags, with God's wrath laden, Grendel came. The monster was minded of mankind now sundry to seize in the stately house. Under welkin he walked, till the wine-palace there,
715 gold-hall of men, he gladly discerned,
flashing with fretwork.^ Not first time, this, that he the home of Hrothgar sought, — yet ne'er in his life-day, late or early, such hardy heroes, such hall-thanes, found I
■^20 Xo the house the warrior walked apace, ^ parted from peace ; ^ the portal opened, though with forged bolts fast, when his fists had struck it,
1 Whether the hall " flashed " or " glittered " to the monster's vision as he came near, in this nocturnal raid, does not concern the poet, who uses a conventional description.
2 This is the third announcement of the arrival, and it is such seemingly vain repetitions that caused Miillenhoff, ten Brink, Mdller, and others to assume interpolations by several hands and to regard the poem as a series of " editions," on the basis of a general accretion from short lays to the present conglomerate of adaptations, interpolations, and inconsistencies. The accretion theory is not ridiculous by any means ; but it does not ex- plain the Beoioidf half so well as the assumption of a single author who wrote the present poem on the basis of old lays, and applied in its general construction the same methods of variation and repetition which obtain for every rhythmic period and almost for every sentence in Anglo-Saxon poetry at large. The first announcement of Grendel's coming empha- sizes the fact that it is by night ; the second lays stress on the start from the moor ; the third brings him to the hall, and to the action. See the same sort of repetition for an arrival, vv. 1640, 1644, below. If we will only apply to the whole web of narrative what we know of the web of sentence and period, much of the supposed awkwardness, "poor mend- ings," "patchwork," and so on, will prove simply the habit of all that national epic. — See also Hart, Ballad and Epic, pp. 194 ff.
» That is, he was a " lost soul," doomed to hell.
BEOWULF 66
and baleful he burst in his blatant rage,
the house's mouth. All hastily, then, 726 o'er fair-paved floor the fiend trod on,
ireful he strode ; there streamed from his eyes
fearful flashes, like flame to see.
He spied in hall the hero-band,
kin and clansmen clustered asleep, 730 hardy liegemen. Then laughed his heart ;
for the monster was minded, ere morn should dawn,
savage, to sever the soul of each,
life from body, since lusty banquet
waited his will ! But Wyrd forbade him 736 to seize any more of men on earth
after that evening. ^ Eagerly watched
Hygelac's kinsman his cursed foe,
how he would fare in fell attack.
Not that the monster was minded to pause ! 740 Straightway he seized a sleeping warrior ^
for the first, and tore him fiercely asunder,
the bone-frame bit, drank blood in streams,
swallowed him piecemeal : swiftly thus
the lifeless corse was clear devoured, 746 e'en feet and hands. Then farther he hied ;
for the hardy hero with hand he grasped,
felt for the foe with fiendish claw,
for the hero reclining, — who clutched it boldly,
prompt to answer, propped on his arm.^
1 It is a trait of the national epic, partly explained by the familiar nature of the stories which it told, to anticipate in this way the issue of an adventure and then go back to the details.
2 His name was Hondscio. See below, v. 2076.
8 Some read: "prompt to answer, opposed the arm." The text is not too clear ; but the situation is what one would expect, and the awk- wardness of the translation does not cloud the facts.
56 THE OLDEST ENGLISH EPIC
760 Soon then saw that shepherd-of-evils that never he met in this middle- world, in the ways of earth, another wight with heavier hand-gripe ; at heart he feared, sorrowed in soul, — none the sooner escaped 1
765 Fain would he flee, his fastness seek, the den of devils : no doings now such as oft he had done in days of old I Then bethought him the hardy Hygelac-thane of his boast at evening : up he bounded,
760 grasped firm his foe, whose fingers cracked. The fiend made off, but the earl close followed. The monster meant — if he might at all — to fling himself free, and far away fly to the fens, — knew his fingers' power
765 in the gripe of the grim one. Gruesome march to Heorot this monster of harm had made ! Din filled the room ; the Danes were bereft, castle-dwellers and clansmen all, earls, of their ale.^ Angry were both^
^ This rendering, backed by Bugge, Holthausen, and Heyne, is quite as good as the mere " terrified " of translators who balk at the undigni- fied notion of spilt beer. But "the ale-bench" is too familiar in the epic for such scruples ; and the hall was primarily intended for the Ger- manic dream, which meant the revel of drinking men. " Tlie ale was all upset" is as much as to say " men feared there would be no more joy in Heorot," so rocked and tottered the great building. It is a phrase parallel to the " bulging breast " for anger, and such survivals of the primitive methods of speech ; and, as has been suggested, may well have seemed archaic to the poet who copied traditional lines.
2 Yet Grendel has shown the white feather from the start. This " angry " is also conventional ; " desperate with fear " is the word for the fiend. — Beowulf's easy victory here should be compared to his far more hazardous fight with Grendel's mother, when his strengta seema not to help, and he has to use a weapon.
BEOWULF 61
770 those savage hall-guards : the house resounded.
Wonder it was the wine-hall firm
in the strain of their struggle stood, to earth
the fair house fell not ; too fast it was
within and without by its iron bands 775 craftily clamped ; though there crashed from sill
many a mead-bench — men have told me —
gay with gold, where the grim foes wrestled.
So well had weened the wisest Scyldings
that not ever at all might any man 780 that bone-decked, brave house break asunder,
crush by craft, — unless clasp of fire
|n smoke engulfed it. — Again uprose
din redoubled. Danes of the North
with fear and frenzy were filled, each one, 785 who from the wall that wailing heard,
God's foe sounding his grisly song,
cry of the conquered, clamorous pain
from captive of hell. Too closely held him
he who of men in might was strongest 790 in that same day of this our life.
XII
Not in any wise would the earls'-defence ^ suffer that slaughterous stranger to live, useless ^ deeming his days and years to men on earth. Now many an earl 795 of Beowulf brandished blade ancestral, fain the life of their lord to shield, their praised prince, if power were theirs ;
1 Kenning for Beowulf.
9 Litotes for " dangerous," " destructive."
68 THE OLDEST ENGLISH EPIC
never they knew, — as they neared the foe, hardy-hearted heroes of war,
800 aiming their swords on every side
the accursed to kill, — no keenest blade,
no fairest of falchions fashioned on earth,
could harm or hurt that hideous fiend !
He was safe,^ by his spells, from sword of battle,
805 from edge of iron. Yet his end and parting on that same day of this our life woful should be, and his wandering soul far off flit to the fiends' domain. Soon he found, who in former days,
810 harmful in heart and hated of God, on many a man such murder wrought, that the frame of his body failed him now. For him the keen-souled kinsman of Hygelac held in hand ; hateful alive
816 was each to other. The outlaw dire took mortal hurt ; a mighty wound showed on his shoulder, and sinews cracked, and the bone-frame burst. To Beowulf now the glory was given, and Grendel thence
820 death-sick his den in the dark moor sought, noisome abode : ^ he knew too well that here was the last of life, an end of his days on earth. — To all the Danes by that bloody battle the boon had come.
825 From ravage had rescued the roving stranger
1 Also his mother, against whom Beowulf's sword is wielded in vain; below, V. 1522.
'•^ Schiicking, Beoiculf's Hikkkehr, p. 10, notes the resemblance of this fight to the struggles between a saint and the devil or devils, as, for ex- ample, in Juliana, vv. 288, 654 ff., and St. Dunstan's affair with Satan.
BEOWULF 69
Hrothgar's hall ; the hardy and wise one
had purged it anew. His night-work pleased him,
his deed and its honor. To Eastern Danes
had the valiant Geat his vaunt made good,
830 all their sorrow and ills assuaged, their bale of battle borne so long, and all the dole they erst endured, pain a-plenty. — 'Twas proof of this, when the hardy-in-fight a hand ^ laid down,
835 arm and shoulder, — all, indeed,
of Grendel's gripe,^ — 'neath the gabled roof.
XIII
Many at morning, as men have told me,
warriors gathered the gift-hall round,
folk-leaders faring from far and near, 840 o'er wide-stretched ways, the wonder to view,
trace of the traitor. Not troublous ^ seemed
the enemy's end to any man
who saw by the gait of the graceless foe
how the weary-hearted, away from thence, 845 baffled in battle and banned, his steps
death-marked dragged to the devils' mere.*
^ Hadding, in the forest by night sheltered by a rude tent of twigs, sees " a hand of extraordinary size " wandering about. His nurse, a giantess, holds the hand while Hadding hews it off, and "corrupt matter" flows from it. Tearing and rending with their claws is the giants' way. See Saxo, Bk. I (Holder, p. 23), and Elton's translation,
2 That is, all Grendel's machinery of grasp, both clutch and reach. The translation "fist" will not do. The concluding nine lines of this section are compared by ten Brink with the last stanza of Tasso's Jerusa- lem Delivered.
* Note the favorite litotes,
* Sea or Lake of the Nicors. Indefinite talk of the moorland or fen as home of the monsters here yields to the idea of home in the waters. The
60 THE OLDEST ENGLISH EPIC
Bloody the billows were boiling there,
turbid the tide of tumbling waves
horribly seething, with sword-blood hot, 850 by that doomed one dyed, who in den of the moor
laid forlorn his life adown,
his heathen soul, — and hell received it. Home then rode the hoary clansmen
from that merry journey, and many a youth, 855 on horses white, the hardy warriors,
back from the mere. Then Beowulf's glory
eager they echoed, and all averred
that from sea to sea, or south or north,
there was no other in earth's domain, 860 under vault of heaven, more valiant found,
of warriors none more worthy to rule!
(On their lord beloved they laid no slight,
gracious Hrothgar : a good king he !) From time to time, the tried-in-battle 865 their gray ^ steeds set to gallop amain,
and ran a race when the road seemed fair.
From time to time, a thane of the king,*
water-hell was familiar to Germanic traditions ; in Scandinavia it takes very definite form ; and even in the Heliand, translation of the gospels, we read of the punishments of the waters, wateres witi.
1 "Fallow." Just now the horses were "white" ; and in v. 916 it will be the roads that are "fallow." Color schemes are not very exact in our old poetry, and color was not used to any extent in visualizing a scene. The popular ballads show the same lack of clearness.
2 Warriors often improvised lays of their own battles, and so laid the foundation of epic ; thus Gaston Paris, in his Histoire Poetique de Charle- magne, for French sources. This thane of Hrothgar may have been a profes- sional minstrel in the eyes of the epic poet who made the Beowulf; but there is a possibility of his amateur standing. In any case, he improvises a lay on Beowulf's adventure, as he rides along, and uses his store of tradi- tional phrase and comment in the process. If the epithet applied to him
BEOWULF 61
who had made many vaunts, and was mindful of verses, stored with sagas and songs of old,
870 bound word to word in well-knit rime, welded his lay; this warrior soon of Beowulf's quest right cleverly sang, and artfully added an excellent tale, in well- ranged words, of the warlike deeds
876 he had heard in saga of Sigemund.^ Strange the stor}^ : he said it all, — ^ the Wselsing's wanderings wide, his struggles, which never were told to tribes of men, the feuds and the frauds, ^ save to Fitela only,
880 when of these doings he deigned to speak, uncle to nephew; as ever the twain stood side by side in stress of war,
by the epic, guma gilphloeden, means "a man laden with vaunts" and not simply " a warrior who had made many vaunts and performed them, that is, covered with glory," — and the former rendering is preferable, — then yet another accomplishment of the Germanic warrior is indicated. He could probably sing his beot, or vaunt, in good verse. Specimens of such a vaunt, sung, however, by a North American Indian at the war- dance, and improvised to the rhythm of the bystanders' choral singing, can be studied with some application to the Germanic problem, — for the cruder forms of improvisation, to be sure, and not for a finished chant of adventure like this in question, which is followed by traditional verse dealing with the Germanic heroic legend. — It is told of William of Orange, a hero of medieval song, born about 754, that when he was riding as a monk through the forest, he caused a song in praise of his own deeds to be sung by a retainer who rode in his train. — The Canterbury pilgrims were keeping old custom when they told tales as they rode ; but improvi- sation in verse was no longer expected.
1 In the Nibelutig en Lay this adventure is told of Siegfried, son of Sig- mund, who is son of Wsels. In the Volsunga Saga (Waelsings) Sin- fiotli ( = Fitela) is son to Sigmund by his sister Signy . See the introduction to Deor's Song, below. Beowulf is thus ranged at once with heroes of Germanic legend.
2 Literally, "he told the whole story, . . . much of it unknown. . ." 8 That is, betrayals, treacheries.
62 THE OLDEST ENGLISH EPIC
and multitude of the monster kind
they had felled with their swords. Of Sigemund grew,
885 when he passed from life, no little praise ; for the doughty-in-combat a dragon killed that herded the hoard : ^ under lioary rock the atheling dared the deed alone, fearful quest, nor was Fitela there.
890 Yet so it befell, his falchion pierced
that wondrous worm ; — on the wall it struck, best blade ; the dragon died in its blood. Thus had the dread-one by daring achieved over the ring-hoard to rule at will,
896 himself to pleasure ; a sea-boat he loaded, and bore on its bosom the beaming gold, son of Waels ; the worm was consumed. He had of all heroes the highest renown among races of men, this refuge-of-warriors,
900 for deeds of daring that decked his name since ^ the hand and heart of Heremod grew slack in battle. He, swiftly banished to mingle with monsters ^ at mercy of foes,
1 " Guarded the treasure." — The " brief abstract " style of this report of the singer's lay befits a tale which was known to hearers of lay and epic alike. Sigmund is the type with which Beowulf is compared, the good and great hero ; while Heremod, admirably introduced, serves as antitype. The latter is probably the Lotherus of Saxo's history, son of Dan, of the royal Danish house, the brave king who turns tyrant and is at last slain by a desperate and outraged folk. For further reference to him, see below, vv. 1709 ff. and 2177 ff.
2 Miillenhoff's rendering, and the best. Heremod, one is told, might have rivalled and surpassed Sigmund, but the former fell from grace, turned tyrant, and in fact was precisely what the aspiring hero should not be, — quite the opposite, say, of this glorious Beowoilf.
3 Probably " devils in hell," who would also be the foes. Others take the banishment literally, — as if to actual giants, who soon compassed the king's death.
BEOWULF ^
to death was betrayed; for torrents of sorrow
906 had lamed him too long ; ^ a load of care to earls and athelings all he proved. Oft indeed, in earlier days,
for the warrior's wayfaring ^ wise men mqurned, who had hoped of him help from harm and bale,
910 and had thought their sovran's son^ would thrive, follow his father, his folk protect, the hoard and the stronghold, heroes' land, home of Scyldings. — But here, thanes said, the kinsman of Hygelac kinder seemed
915 to all : the other ^ was urged to crime !
And afresh to the race,^ the fallow roads by swift steeds measured ! The morning sun was climbing higher. Clansmen hastened to the high-built hall, those hardy-minded, -^
920 the wonder to witness. Warden of treasure, crowned with glory, the king himself, with stately band from the bride-bower strode;
1 Bugge emends :
With torrents of sorrow he had long lamed his landfolk ; a load of care . . .
and understands the "earlier days" in v. 007 as the days before Here- mod's real tyranny began, though his subjects were already chafing at his folly and neglect.
2 "Way of life" (Wyatt). Sievers refers it to the assumed literal banishment. Or does it mean some wild adventure undertaken when the king should have been caring for his folk at home ?
8 See w. 20 ff., above : "So becomes it a youth ..."
* Sc. Heremod.
^ The singer has sung his lays, and the epic resumes its story. The time-relations are not altogether good in this long passage which describes the rejoicings of "the day after" ; but the present shift from the riders on the road to the folk at the hall is not very violent, and is of a piece with the general narrative style.
64 THE OLDEST ENGLISH EPIC
and with him the queen and her crowd of maidens measured the path to the mead-house fair.
XIV
Xl 926 Hrothgar spake, — to the hall he went, stood by the steps, the steep roof saw, garnished with gold, and GrendeFs hand : — " For the sight I see to the Sovran Ruler be speedy thanks ! A throng of sorrows
930 I have borne from Grendel ; but God still works wonder on wonder, the Warden-of- Glory. It was but now that I never more for woes that weighed on me waited help long as I lived, when, laved in blood,
935 stood sword-gore-stained this stateliest house, — widespread woe for wise men all, who had no hope to hinder ever foes infernal and fiendish sprites from havoc in hall. This hero now,
940 by the Wielder's might, a work has done that not all of us erst could ever do by wile and wisdom. Lo, well can she say whoso of women this warrior bore among sons of men, if still she liveth,
945 that the God of the ages was good to her
in the birth of her bairn. Now, Beowulf, thee, of heroes best, I shall heartily love as mine own, my son; preserve thou ever this kinship new: thou shalt never lack
960 wealth of the world that I wield as mine ! Full oft for less have I largess showered, my precious hoard, on a punier man,
BEOWULF 65
less stout in struggle. Thyself hast now
fulfilled such deeds, that thy fame shall endure 956 through all the ages. As ever he did,
well may the Wielder reward thee still ! "
Beowulf spake, bairn of Ecgtheow : —
" This work of war most willingly
we have fought, this fight, and fearlessly dared 960 force of the foe. Fain, too, were I
hadst thou but seen himself, what time
the fiend in his trappings tottered to fall I
Swiftly, I thought, in strongest gripe
on his bed of death to bind him down, 965 that he in the hent of this hand of mine
should breathe his last: but he broke away.^
Him I might not — the Maker willed not —
hinder from flight, and firm enough hold
the life-destroyer : too sturdy was he, 970 the ruthless, in running ! For rescue, however,
he left behind him his hand in pledge,
arm and shoulder ; nor aught of help
could the cursed one thus procure at all.
None the longer liveth he, loathsome fiend, 976 sunk in his sins, but sorrow holds him
tightly grasped in gripe of anguish,
in baleful bonds, where bide he must,
evil outlaw, such awful doom
as the Mighty Maker shall mete him out."
980 More silent seemed the son of Ecglaf ^ in boastful speech of his battle-deeds,
^ Literally, " I intended ... if his body had not slipped away." * Unferth, Beowulf's sometime opponent in the flyting.
66 THE OLDEST ENGLISH EPIC
since athelings all, through the earl's great prowess, ^ beheld that hand, on the high roof gazing,^ foeman's fingers, — the forepart of each
985 of the sturdy nails to steel was likest, — heathen's " hand-spear," hostile warrior's claw uncanny. 'Twas clear, they said, that him no blade of the brave could touch, how keen soever, or cut away
990 that battle-hand bloody from baneful foe.
XV
/'
There was hurry and hest in Heorot now for hands to bedeck it, and dense was the throng of men and women the wine-hall to cleanse, the guest-room to garnish. Gold-gay shone the hangings
996 that were wove on the wall, and wonders many to delight each mortal that looks upon them. Though braced within by iron bands, that building briglit was broken sorely ; ^ rent were its hinges ; the roof alone
1000 held safe and sound, when, seared with crime, \the fiendish foe his flight essayed,
^ That is, as Klaeber points out, Modern Philology, III, 256, the nobles look from outside "in the direction of the high roof, and behold the hand." Beowulf, he says, "had placed Grendel's hand . . . (on some projection perhaps) above the door (outside) as high as he could reach." But ten Brink (Beowulf, p. 63) takes for granted that the hand was placed inside the hall. See vv. 836, 926, above.
2 There is no horrible inconsistency here such as the critics strive and cry about. In spite of the ruin that Grendel and Beovralf had made ■within the hall, the framework and roof held firm, and swift repairs made the interior habitable. Tapestries were hung on the walls, and willing hands prepared the banquet.
BEOWULF 67
of life despairing. — No light thing that,^
the flight for safety, — essay it who will I
Forced of fate, he shall find his way 1005 to the refuge ready for race of man,
for soul-possessors, and sons of earth ;
and there his body on bed of death
shall rest after revel.
Arrived was the hour
when to hall proceeded Healfdene's son ; 1010 the king himself would sit to banquet.
Ne'er heard I of host in haughtier throng
more graciously gathered round giver-of-rings !
Bowed then to bench those bearers-of -glory,
fain of the feasting. Featly received 1015 many a mead-cup the mighty-in-spirit,
kinsmen who sat in the sumptuous hall,
Hrothgar and Hrothulf.^ Heorot now
was filled with friends ; the folk of Scyldings
ne'er yet had tried the traitor's deed. 1020 To Beowulf gave the bairn of Healfdene
a gold-wove banner, guerdon of triumph,
broidered battle-flag, breastplate and helmet ;
and a splendid sword was seen of many
borne to the brave one. Beowulf took 1025 cup in hall : ^ for such costly gifts
iThe usual litotes for "impossible." So, v. 1027, below, "few" means "none at all." — As for the matter, a moral commonplace is not very happily forced into the narrative.
2 Uncle and nephew. It would seem that after a long period of amity (cf. Widsith, 45) they quarrelled and fought. See also below, v. 1164.
' From its formal use in other places, this phrase, to take cup in hall, or " on the floor," would seem to mean that Beowulf stood up to receive his gifts, drink to the donor, and say thanks.
68 THE OLDEST ENGLISH EPIC
he suffered no shame in that soldier throng.^ For I heard of few heroes, in heartier mood, . with four such gifts, so fashioned with gold, on the ale-bench honoring others thus !
1030 O'er the roof of the helmet high, a ridge, " wound with wires, kept ward o'er the head, lest the relict-of -files ^ should fierce invade, sharp in the strife, when that shielded hero should go to grapple against his foes. /
1035 Then the earls'-defence ^ on the floor * bade lead 1^ coursers eight, with carven head-gear, adown the hall : one horse was decked ' with a saddle all shining and set in jewels ; 'twas the battle-seat of the best of kings,
1040 when to play of swords the son of Healfdene was fain to fare. Ne'er failed his valor in the crush of combat when corpses fell. To Beowulf over them both then gave the refuge-of-Ingwines right and power,
1045 o'er war-steeds and weapons : wished him joy of them. Manfully thus the mighty prince, hoard-guard for heroes, that hard fight repaid with steeds and treasures contemned by none who is willing to say the sooth aright.
^ The comitatus ; the soldurii.
* Kenning for sword. Charles Lamb (" On the Inconvenience Result- ing from being Hanged'') calls a resuscitated man " the leavings of the rope."
» Hrothgar. He is also the " refuge of the friends of Ing," of v. 1044. Ing belongs to myth.
* Horses are frequently led or ridden into the hall where folk sit at banquet : so in Chaucer's Squire's Tale, in the ballad of King Estmere, and iu the romances.
BEOWULF 69
XVI
1050 And the lord of earls, to each that came
with Beowulf over the brhiy ways,
an heirloom there at the ale-bench gave,
precious gift ; and the price ^ bade pay
in gold for him whom Grendel erst 1056 murdered, — and fain of them more had killed,
had not wisest God their Wyrd averted,
and the man's ^ brave mood. The Maker then
ruled human kind, as here and now.
Therefore is insight always best, 1060 and forethought of mind. How much awaits him
of lief and of loath, who long time here,
through days of warfare this world endures I
Then song and music mingled sounds
in the presence of Healfdene's head-of-armies *
1065 and harping was heard with the hero-lay ^ as Hrothgar's singer the hall-joy woke along the mead-seats, makingjiis song of that sudden raid on the sons of Finn^ Healfdene's hero, Hnaef the Scylding,
1070 was fated to fall in the Frisian slaughter.^
1 Man-price, wergild.
2 Beowulf's. The same combination of fate and courage as above, V. 573. 3 Hrothgar.
* Literally, ^^ glee-wood was greeted (stirred, touched) and lay was sung."
* There is no need to assume a gap in the Ms. As before about Sigemund and Heremod, so now, though at greater length, about Finn and his feud, a lay is chanted or recited ; and the epic poet, counting on hia readers' familiarity with the story, — a fragment of it still exists, and is printed in this volume, — simply gives the headings.
' The exact story to which this episode refers in summary is not to be determined, but the following account of it is reasonable and has good
70 THE OLDEST ENGLISH EPIC
Hildeburh needed not hold in value
her enemies' honor! ^ Innocent both
were the loved ones she lost at the linden-play,
bairn and brother; they bowed to fate,
1075 stricken by spears; 'twas a sorrowful woman I None doubted why the daughter of Hoc bewailed her doom when dawning came, and under the sky she saw them lying, kinsmen murdered, where most she had kenned
1080 of the sweets of the world! By war were swept, too,
support among scholars. Finn, a Frisian chieftain, who nevertheless has a " castle " outside the Frisian border, marries Hildeburh, a Danish prin- cess ; and her brother, Hnaef, with many other Danes, pays Finn a visit. Relations between the two peoples have been strained before. Something starts the old feud anew ; and the visitors are attacked in their quarters. Hnaef is killed ; so is a son of Hildeburh. Many fall on both sides. Peace is patched up ; a stately funeral is held ; and the surviving visitors become in a way vassals or liegemen of Finn, going back with him to Frisia. So matters rest a while. Hengest is now leader of the Danes ; but he is set upon revenge for his former lord, Hnsef . Probably he is killed in feud ; but his clansmen, Guthlaf and Oslaf, gather at their home a force of sturdy Danes, come back to Frisia, storm Finn's stronghold, kill him, and carry back their kinswoman Hildeburh. The Finnsburg fragment, translated below, describes (so Bugge puts it, conforming, as he says, " to the common view") the fight in which Hntef fell, "that is to say, an event which precedes the story told in the Beoiculf,'' and is noted in these introductory lines (vv. 1069 f.). — In the Widsith, Hnaef is called ruler of the Hocings. — In v. 1142 it is assumed that Hengest is killed by the sword "Lafing" of a Frisian named Hun. In Widsith, v. 3.3, Hun ruled the Haetweras, a tribe of Franks now apparently subject to Finn the Frisian. Another reading makes Finn slay Hengest with a sword " Hun- lafing." Two other interpretations make either Finn lay this sword " Hunlafing,"' or Hun lay "Lafing," on Hengest's lap, as a gift and a sign of allegiance on the part of the receiver. Of course, in this case, Hengest dissembles his real feelings to gain time and opportunity for the subsequent invasion.
1 Usual litotes; she had good cause to complain. The ''enemies" must be the Frisians ; the original word is " eoteus," " ettins," monsters ; but it is elsewhere used in speaking of Frisian men.
BEOWULF 71
Finn's own liegemen, and few were left ;
in the parleying-place ^ he could ply no longer
weapon, nor war could he wage on Hengest,
and rescue his remnant by right of arms 1086 from the prince's thane. A pact he offered:
another dwelling the Danes should have,
hall and high-seat, and half the power
should fall to them in Frisian land;
and at the fee-gifts, Folcwald's son 1090 day by day the Danes should honor,
the folk of Hengest favor with rings,
even as truly, with treasure and jewels,
with fretted gold, as his Frisian kin
he meant to honor in ale-hall there. 1095 Fact of peace they plighted further
on both sides firmly. Finn to Hengest
with oath, upon honor, openly promised
that woful remnant, with wise-men's aid,
nobly to govern, so none of the guests 1100 by word or work should warp the treaty,*
or with malice of mind bemoan themselves
as forced to follow their fee-giver's slayer,
lordless men, as their lot ordained. "^ Should Frisian, moreover, with foeman's taunt, 1105 that murderous hatred to mind recall.
1 Battlefield. — Hengest is the " prince's thane," companion of Hnsef. " Folcwald's son " is Finn.
'^ That is, Finn would govern in all honor the few Danish warriors who were left, provided, of course, that none of them tried to renew the quarrel or avenge Hnaef their fallen lord. If, again, one of Finn's Frisians began a quarrel, he should die by the sword. " With wise-men's aid " is like the form familiar in -Alfred's Laws. " With the advice of my Witan, I order. ..."
72 THE OLDEST ENGLISH EPIC
then edge of the sword must seal his doom. Oaths were given, and ancient gold heaped from hoard. — The hardy Scylding, battle-thane best,^ on his balefire lay.
1110 All on the pyre were plain to see ^ the gory sark, the gilded swine-crest, boar of hard iron, and athelings many slain by the sword: at the slaughter they fell. It was Hildeburh's hest, at Hnsef's own pyre
1115 the bairn of her body on brands to lay, his bones to burn, on the balefire placed, at his uncle's side.^ In sorrowful dirges bewept them the woman: great wailing ascended.* Then wound up to welkin the wildest of death-fires,
1120 roared o'er the hillock : ^ heads all were melted,
1 Hnaef.
* This reading, which involves a very slight change, was proposed by Holthausen, and is followed by Gering in his German translation. The clash of kin-duties is the deep note in Germanic tragedy : to emphasize the fact that here lay the hero, and by him his sister's son, — the dearest of relationships, — opposed in fight and united in death, was clear privi- lege for the poet; and the dirge of the mother and sister doubtless dwelt chiefly on the tragic intensity of the double loss.
3 Reading guthrinc = guthhring, " noise of battle," with Grein. It could easily be used for the lamentation of a great multitude. — For the previous passage, if the old reading is retained, a period should follow " placed " (v. 1116), and the next line would be :
Sad by his shoulder sorrowed the woman,
wept him with dirges : great wailing ascended. . . .
This vocero or lament of the widow, as in the case of BeowTilf, v. 3150, below, was accompanied by choral wailing of the throng. In the Biad, at the funeral of Hector: " Thus spake she wailing and therewith the great multitude of the people groaned." — " Thus spake she wailing and stirred unending moan. ..."
* The high place chosen for the funeral : see description of Beowulf's funeral-pile at the end of the poem.
BEOWULF 73
gashes burst, and blood gushed out from bites ^ of the body. Balefire devoured, greediest spirit, those spared not by war out of either folk: their flower was gone.
XVII
1125 Then hastened those heroes their home to see, friendless, to find the Frisian land, houses and high burg. Hengest still through the death-dyed winter dwelt with Finn, holding pact, yet of home he minded,
1130 though powerless his ring-decked prow to drive over the waters, now waves rolled fierce lashed by the winds, or winter locked them in icy fetters. Then fared ^ another year to men's dwellings, as yet they do,
1135 the sunbright skies, that their season ever duly await. Far off winter was driven ; fair lay earth's breast ; and fain was the rover, the guest, to depart, though more gladly he pondered on wreaking his vengeance than roaming the deep,
1140 and how to hasten the hot encounter
where sons of the Frisians were sure to be. So he escaped not the common doom,^ when Hun with " Lafing," the light-of-battle, best of blades, his bosom pierced :
1145 its edge was famed with the Frisian earls.
^ Wounds.
2 A touch of myth lingers in this personification of the seasons. Compare the pretty lyric "Lenten is comen with love to toune," where " toune,'" like "men's dwellings" in the text, means no definite place, but the whole district in question " where folk live." Of course, spring then brought the new year. * See conclusion of note to v. 1070.
74 THE OLDEST ENGLISH EPIC
On fierce-heart Finn there fell likewise, on himself at home, the horrid sword-death ; for Guthlaf and Oslaf of grim attack had sorrowing told, from sea-ways landed,
1150 mourning their woes.^ Finn's wavering spirit bode not in breast. The burg was reddened with blood of foemen, and Finn was slain, king amid clansmen; the queen was taken. To their ship the Scylding warriors bore
1155 all the chattels the chieftain owned, whatever they found in Finn's domain of gems and jewels. The gentle wife o'er paths of the deep to the Danes they bore,
led to her land.
, ^ The lay was finished,
1160 the gleeman's song. Then glad rose the revel; bench-joy brightened. Bearers draw from their "wonder-vats" wine. Comes Wealhtheow
forth, under gold-crown ^ goes where the good pair sit, uncle and nephew, true each to the other one,
1165 kindred in amity. Unferth the spokesman
at the Scylding lord's feet sat : men had faith in his
spirit, his keenness of courage, though kinsmen had found him
^ That is, these two Danes, escaping home, had told the story of the attack on Hnaef, the slaying of Hengest, and all the Danish woes. Collecting a force, they return to Frisia and kill Finn in his home. To this attack some writers refer the fragment of Finnshurg.
2 So men go "hardy under helmet." — The following lines are of un- usual length, and are so rendered. The uncle and nepliew are Hrothgar and Hrothulf. See above, v. 1017, and below, vv. 1180 f.
BEOWULF 76
unsure at the sword-play. The Scylding queen spoke:
" Quaff of this cup, my king and lord, 1170 breaker of rings, and blithe be thou,
gold-friend of men ; to the Geats here speak
such words of mildness as man should use.
Be glad with thy Geats ; ^ of those gifts be mindful,
or near or far, which now thou hast. 1176 Men say to me, as son thou wishest ..
yon hero to hold. Thy Heorot purged,
jewel-hall brightest, enjoy while thou canst,
with many a largess; and leave to thy kin
folk and realm when forth thou goest 1180 to greet thy doom. For gracious I deem
my Hrothulf,'^ willing to hold and rule
nobly our youths, if thou yield up first,
prince of Scyldings, thy part in the world.
' I ween with good he will well requite 1186 offspring of ours, when all he minds
that for him we did in his helpless days
of gift and grace to gain him honor ! "
Then she turned to the seat where her sons were placed,
Hrethric and Hrothmund, with heroes' bairns,
1 Emended by some editors to "guests." Neither reading combines satisfactorily with the context.
2 Nephew to Hrothgar, with whom he subsequently quarrels, and elder cousin to the two young sons of Hrothgar and Wealhtheow, — their natural guardian in the event of the king's death. There is something finely feminine in this speech of Wealhtheow's, apart from its somewhat irregular and irrelevant sequence of topics. Both she and her lord prob- ably distrust Hrothulf ; but she bids the king to be of good cheer, and, turning to the suspect, heaps affectionate assurances on his probity. "My own Hrothulf" will surely not forget those favors and benefits of the past, but will repay them to the orphaned boy.
76 THE OLDEST ENGLISH EPIC
1190 young men together : the Geat, too, sat there, Beowulf brave, the brothers between.
XVIII
A cup she gave him, with kindly greeting and winsome words. Of wounden gold, she offered, to honor him, arm-jewels twain,
1196 corselet and rings, and of collars the noblest that ever I knew the earth around. Ne'er heard I so mighty, 'neath heaven's dome, a hoard-gem of heroes, since Hama bore to his bright-built burg the Brisings' necklace,*
1200 jewel and gem casket. — Jealousy fled he, Eormenric's hate : chose help eternal.^ Hygelac Geat,^ grandson of Swerting, on the last of his raids this ring bore with him, under his banner the booty defending,
1205 the war-spoil warding; but Wyrd o'erwhelmed him what time, in his daring, dangers he sought, feud with Frisians. Fairest of gems
1 Legend and myth are interwoven in this allusion, but the Brisings' (Brosings' in our Ms.) necklace by this time had probably sunk to a sort of celestial standard of value in jevk'elry, a traditional phrase, and the myth — preserved in part by Scandinavian stories — of the wonderful ornament of the goddess Freyja had quite lost its vitality in epic verse. For Eormanric, see the allusion in Deor''s Song, below. Hama is Heime in the Germanic legend.
2 TTsually this means that " he died "; but Bugge, translating " he went into God's refuge,'' and relying on a late form of the legend, thinks we are to understand that Hama retired from the world into a monastery.
8 The poet now tells the fate of this gift of Wealhtheow. Beowulf gives it to his lord Hygelac, who wears it on his fated raid into Frisian lands, — the historical event which took place between 512 and 520 a.d. Theudebert, grandson of Clovis the Frankish king, surprised and slew Hygelac, captured his fleet and the booty, and took many prisoners. — See also w. 2355, 2914,
BEOWULF 71
he bore with him over the beaker-of-waves,
sovran strong : under shield he died. 1210 Fell the corpse of the king into keeping of Franks,
gear of the breast, and that gorgeous ring ;
weaker warriors won the spoil,
after gripe of battle, from Geatland's lord,^
and held the death-field.
Din rose in hall. 1215 Wealhtheow spake amid warriors, and said: —
" This jewel enjoy in thy jocund youth,
Beowulf lov'd, these battle-weeds wear,
a royal treasure, and richly thrive 1
Preserve thy strength, and these striplings here 1220 counsel in kindness : requital be mine.
Hast done such deeds, that for days to come
thou art famed among folk both far and near,
so wide as washeth the wave of Ocean
his windy walls. Through the ways of life 1226 prosper, O prince ! I pray for thee
rich possession s.2 To son of mine
1 Tradition told of Hygelac's enormous size and strength. A certain Liber Monstrorum, perhaps of the seventh century, cites rex Hugilaicus, who ruled the Getae and was killed by the Franks, as one whom no horse could carry since he was twelve years old, and whose enormous skeleton was still on an island near the mouth of the Rhine. Moreover, this friendly account would attribute the defeat to surprise by an overwhelmingly superior force. — Quite in accord with the usual construction of epic nar- rative in old English verse, and with the same structure in little as shown by the parallels and variations of the sentence or period, the poet returns to the scene in the hall. "Din rose in the hall" ha.s been emended to "din ceased," or " warriors listened," but vainly; the usual applause goes up as the gifts are handed to the hero, and then silence falls as the queen speaks.
2 Or, perhaps, "thou art heartily welcome to these treasures I have given thee," as Gering translates.
78 THE OLDEST ENGLISH EPIC
be helpful in deed and uphold his joys I
Here every earl to the other is true,
mild of mood, to the master loyal ! 1230 Thanes are friendly, the throng obedient,
liegemen are revelling : list and obey! "^
Went then to her place. — That was proudest of feasts ;
flowed wine for the warriors. Wyrd they knew not,
destiny dire, and the doom to be seen 1236 by many an earl ^ when eve should come,
and Hrothgar homeward hasten away,
royal, to rest. The room was guarded
by an army of earls, as erst was done.
They bared the bench-boards ; abroad they spread 1240 beds and bolsters. — One beer-carouser
in danger of doom^ lay down in the hall. —
At their heads they set their shields of war,
bucklers bright ; on the bench were there
over each atlieling, easy to see, 1246 the high battle-helmet, the haughty spear,
the corselet of rings. 'Twas their custom so
ever to be for battle prepared,
at home, or harrying, which it were,
even as oft as evil threatened -' \
1P60 their sovran king. — They were clansmen good.*
1 Literally, " Do as I bid."
2 Litotes for "all." The fatal stroke hovered over them all, though only one was actually stricken.
'Literally, "ready to go Isc. to death], and fey," on the verge of death, and a marked man.
* The Gnomic poetry of the Exeter Ms., 178 ff., describes, in what may be stanzaic verse, how clansmen or comites ought to live in fellowship, and especially that they should sleep under one roof, remaining a united band by night as well as by day:
/'
BEOWULF 7S
XIX
Then sank they to sleep. With sorrow one bought his rest of the evening, — as ofttime had happened when Grendel guarded that golden hall, evil wrought, till his end drew nigh,
1255 slaughter for sins. 'Twas seen and told how an avenger survived the fiend, as was learned afar. The livelong time * after that grim fight, Grendel's mother, monster of women, mourned her woe.
1260 She was doomed to dwell in the dreary waters, cold sea-courses, since Cain cut down with edge of the sword his only brother, his father's offspring : outlawed he fled, marked with murder, from men's delights,
1265 warded the wilds. — There woke from him ^ such fate-sent ghosts as Grendel, who, war-wolf horrid, at Heorot found a warrior watching and waiting the fray, with whom the grisly one grappled amain.
1270 But the man remembered his mighty power, the glorious gift that God had sent him.
Ever must hei-oes in harmony live,
in the same place sleeping ; So that never shall man of man speak ill
till death undo them!
Compare vv. 1228 ff., above. For the matter of the stanzaic form see Signy's Lament, translated below in the introduction to Deor''s Song.
1 Miillenhoff so punctuates, and explains that though only twenty-four hours had passed from the time of Grendel's discomfiture to her quest of revenge, the interval seemed interminable to the waiting monster. More- over, by this reading no gap in the Ms. is assumed.
■■^ See v. 107, abovajj:^' From him are descended," etc. This repetition certainly seems vain, and this way of narrative is not our way.
80 THE OLDEST ENGLISH EPIC
in his Maker's mercy put his trust
for comfort and help: so he conquered the foe,
felled the fiend, who fled abject, 1275 reft of joy, to the realms of death,
mankind's foe. And his mother now,
gloomy and grim, would go that quest
of sorrow, the death of her son to avenge.
To Heorot came she, where helmeted Danes 1280 slept in the hall. Too soon came back
old ills of the earls, when in she burst,
the mother of Grendel. Less grim, though, that terror,
e'en as terror of woman in war is less,
might of maid, than of men in arms 1285 when, hammer-forged, the falchion hard,
sword gore-stained, through swine of the helm,
crested, with keen blade carves amain. "■ Then was in hall the hard-edge drawn,
the swords on the settles,^ and shields a-many 1290 firm held in hand : nor helmet minded
nor harness of mail, whom that horror seized. Haste was hers ; she would hie afar
and save her life when the liegemen saw her.
Yet a single atheling up she seized 1295 fast and firm, as she fled to the moor.
He was for Hrothgar of heroes the dearest,
of trusty vassals betwixt the seas,
whom she killed on his couch, a clansman famous,
in battle brave. — Nor was Beowulf there ; 1300 another house had been held apart,
after giving of gold, for the Geat renowned. — 1 They had laid their arms on the benches near where they slept ; v. 1242.
BEOWULF 81
Uproar filled Heorot ; the hand all had viewed,
blood-flecked, she bore with her ; bale was returned,
dole in the dwellings : 'twas dire exchange 1306 where Dane and Geat were doomed to give
the lives of loved ones. Long-tried king,
the hoary hero, at heart was sad
when he knew his noble no more lived,
and dead indeed was his dearest thane. 1310 To his bower was Beowulf brought in haste,
dauntless victor. As daylight broke,
along with his earls the atheling lord,
with his clansmen, came, where the king abode
waiting to see if the Wielder-of-All 1316 would turn this tale of trouble and woe.
Strode o'er floor the famed-in-strife,
with his hand-companions, — the hall resounded, —
wishing to greet the wise old king,
Ingwines' lord ; he asked if the night 1320 had passed in peace to the prince's mind.
XX
Hrothgar spake, helmet-of-Scyldings : — " Ask not of pleasure ! Pain is renewed to Danish folk. Dead is jEschere, of Yrmenlaf the elder brother, 1326 my sage adviser and stay in council, shoulder-comrade ^ in stress of fight when warriors clashed and we warded our heads,
^ Eaxl-gestealla, "shoulder-comrade," here refers to the line of battle; but it might include the other qualities of advice and counsel. Dau Michel in his fourteenth century translation or paraphrase, Ayenbite of Inwyt, calls a councillor bezide-zittere, " beside-sitter."
82 THE OLDEST ENGLISH EPIC
hewed the helm-boars : hero famed
should be every earl as jEschere was I 1330 But here in Heorot a hand hath slain him
of wandering death-sprite. I wot not whither,*
proud of the prey, her path she took,
fain of her fill. The feud she avenged
that yesternight, unyieldingly, 1335 Grendel in grimmest grasp thou killedst, —
seeing how long these liegemen mine
he ruined and ravaged. Reft of life,
in arms he fell. Now another comes,
keen and cruel, her kin to avenge, 1340 faring far in feud of blood :
so that many a thane shall think, who e'er
sorrows in soul for that sharer of rings,
this is hardest of heart-bales. The hand lies low
that once was willing each wish to please. 1345 Land-dwellers here ^ and liegemen mine,
who house by those parts,^ I have heard relate
that such a pair they have sometimes seen,
march-stalkers mighty the moorland haunting,
wandering spirits : one of them seemed, 1360 so far as my folk could fairly judge,
of womankind ; and one, accursed,
in man's guise trod the misery-track
1 He surmises presently where she is.
2 The connection is not diflBcult. The words of mourning, of acute grief, are said ; and according to Germanic sequence of thought, inex- orable here, the next and only topic is revenge. But is it possible ? Hrothgar leads up to his appeal and promise with a skilful and often effective description of the horrors which surround the monster's home and await the attempt of an avenging foe. This account is not the thing of shreds and patches which Miillenhoff and ten Brink would make it out.
8 Following Gering's suggestion.
BEOWULF 8S
of exile, though huger than human bulk.
Grendel in days long gone they named him, 1355 folk of the land ; his father they knew not,
nor any brood that was born to him
of treacherous spirits. Untrod is their home ; *
by wolf-cliffs haunt they and windy headlands,
fenways fearful, where flows the stream 1360 from mountains gliding to gloom of the rocks,
underground flood. ^ Not far is it hence
1 R. Morris pointed out what seems an imitation of this passage in the Blickling Homilies.
2 Compare Etibla Khan : —
" Where Alph, the sacred river, ran Through caverns measureless to man, Down to a sunless sea."
It is worth while to compare with this passage another deliberate na- ture-description in Anglo-Saxon verse, and its Latin model as well. One sees how it is modified, enlarged, and really improved. It is the opening of a little poem on Doomsday paraphrased from Latin verses attributed to Beda, — and also to Alcuin.
Alone I sat in the shade of a grove, in the deeps of the holt, bedecked with shadows, there where the waterbrooks wavered and ran in the midst of the place, — so I make my song, — and winsome blooms there waxed and blossomed, all massed amid a meadow peerless. And the trees of the forest trembled and murmured for a horror of winds, and the welkin was stirred, and my heavy heart was harassed amain. Then I suddenly, sad and fearful, set me to sing this sorrowful verse. . . . This represents five lines of Latin -. —
Inter florigeras fecundi cespitis herbas, flamine ventorum resonantibus undique ramis, arboris urabriferae maestus sub tegmine solus dum sedi, subito planctu turbatus amaro, carmina prae tristi cecini haec lugubria mente. . . . It is no long stride hence to the conventional dream-poets, and such openings as are offered by the beginning of the Piers Plowman vision.
i
84 THE OLDEST ENGLISH EPIC
in measure of miles that the mere expands, and o'er it the frost-bound forest hanging, sturdily rooted, shadows the wave.
1365 By night is a wonder weird to see,
fire on the waters. So wise lived none of the sons of men, to search those depths I Nay, though the heath-rover,i harried by dogs, the horn-proud hart, this holt should seek,
1370 long distance driven, his dear life first
on the brink he yields ere he brave the plunge to hide his head : 'tis no happy place ! Thence the welter of waters washes up wan to welkin when winds bestir
1376 evil storms, and air grows dusk,
and the heavens weep. Now is help once more with thee alone ! The land thou knowst not,^ place of fear, where thou findest out that sin-flecked being. Seek if thou dare !
1380 I will reward thee, for waging this fight, with ancient treasure, as erst I did, with winding gold, if thou winnest back."
1 Bugge has shown how popular the stag or hart was among the north- ern folk for names of persons and places — so Hrothgar's own hall Heorot, or " The Hart " — and for comparisons and the like. — There is a curious note by Andr^ Ch^nier, made in preparation for one of his poems (CEuvres Poetiques, II, 107), about a white animal that prefers to be torn to pieces rather than soil itself by rescue in a miry swamp. But the strength of the present suggestion lies in its uncompromising contrast of terrors, one with the other.
2 Has been emended to read: "the land now thou knowst," that is, " I have described the place: go thither if you dare." By the text one understands: "Here is land unknown to you and horrible. If you dare, etc."
BEOWULF 85
XXI
Beowulf spake, bairn of Ecgtheow :
"Sorrow not, sage ! It beseems us better 1385 friends to avenge than fruitlessly mourn them.
Each of us all must his end abide
in the ways of the world ; so win who may
glory ere death ! When his days are told,
that is the warrior's worthiest doom. 1390 Rise, O realm-warder ! Ride we anon,
and mark the trail of the mother of Grendel.
No harbor shall hide her — heed my promise ! —
enfolding of field or forested mountain
or floor of the flood, let her flee where she will ! 1396 But thou this day endure in patience,
as I ween thou wilt, thy woes each one."
Leaped up the graybeard : God he thanked,
mighty Lord, for the man's brave words.
For Hrothgar soon a horse was saddled 1400 wave-maned steed. The sovran wise
stately rode on ; his shield-armed men
followed in force. The footprints led
along the woodland, widely seen,
a path o'er the plain, where she passed, and trod 1406 the murky moor ; of men-at-arms
she bore the bravest and best one, dead,
him who with Hrothgar the homestead ruled. On then went the atheling-born
o'er stone-cliffs steep and strait defiles, 1410 narrow passes and unknown ways,
headlands sheer, and the haunts of the Nicors.
Foremost he ^ fared, a few at his side ^ Hrothgar is probably meant.
86 THE OLDEST ENGLISH EPIC
of the wiser men, the ways to scan, till he found in a flash the forested hill
1415 hanging over the hoary rock, a woful wood : the waves below were dyed in blood. The Danish men had sorrow of soul, and for Scyldings all, for many a hero, 'twas hard to bear,
1420 ill for earls, when -3^]schere's head
they found by the flood on the foreland there. Waves were welling, the warriors saw, hot with blood ; but the horn sang oft battle-song bold. The band sat down,
1425 and watched on the water worm-like things, sea-dragons strange that sounded the deep, and nicors that lay on the ledge of the ness — such as oft essay at hour of morn ^ on the road-of-sails their ruthless quest, —
1430 and sea-snakes and monsters. These started away, swollen and savage that song to hear, that war-horn's blast. The warden of Geats, with bolt from bow, then balked of life, of wave-work, one monster ; amid its heart
1436 went the keen war-shaft ; in water it seemed
less doughty in swimming whom death had seized. Swift on the billows, with boar-spears well hooked and barbed, it was hard beset, done to death and dragged on the headland,
1440 wave-roamer wondrous. Warriors viewed the grisly guest.
Then girt him Beowulf in martial mail, nor mourned for his life. 1 Noon ? " Mittagsstunde, Geisterstunde."
BEOWULF 87
His breastplate broad and bright of hues, woven by hand, should the waters try ;
1446 well could it ward the warrior's body
that battle should break on his breast in vain nor harm his heart by the hand of a foe. And the helmet white that his head protected was destined to dare the deeps of the flood,
1460 through wave-whirl win : 'twas wound with chains, decked with gold, as in days of yore the weapon-smith worked it wondrously, with swine-forms set it, that swords nowise, brandished in battle, could bite that helm.
1455 Nor was that the meanest of mighty helps which Hrothgar's orator ^ offered at need : " Hrunting " they named the hilted sword, of old-time heirlooms easily first ; iron was its edge, all etched with poison,
1460 with battle-blood hardened, nor blenched it at fight in hero's hand who held it ever, on paths of peril prepared to go to folkstead ^ of foes. Not first time this
1 Unferth is the thyle (spokesman ?) of the king. Naming a sword furnished the least of its personal attributes in Germanic days. It had its moods and tenses; " refused" often "to bite" (1523, 2578), or else, on appeal, did miraculous service. It spoke, sang, chided its inactive owner, spurred even to his duty, as in a fine Danish ballad. It had its own name, — Hrunting, Naegling. It had kennings in plenty, — such a§ the " warrior's friend " or "friend of war," vv. 1810, 2735. It gave out a light, which is not always to be euhemerized into the sparks that flew from it in battle. The reference in 1459 is to the hardening process of dipping it in poison, snake's blood, or the like. " Blood of battle " was especially efficacious for this purpose. On the other side of the account, it could be made harmless by certain magic forms. So Beowulf finds, even with this Hrunting or "thruster" ; see v. 1522.
2 Meeting-place. "Destined" is, in view of the issue, to be under- stood as " expected," — it had been sent on other capital errands before.
88 THE OLDEST ENGLISH EPIC
it was destined to do a daring task. 1466 For he bore not in mind, the bairn of Ecglaf • sturdy and strong, that speech he had made, drunk with wine, now this weapon he lent I to a stouter swordsman. Himself, though, durst not under welter of waters wager his life 1470 as loyal liegeman. So lost he his glory, honor of earls. With the other not so, who girded him now for the grim encounter.
XXII
Beowulf spake, bairn of Ecgtheow : —
" Have mind, thou honored offspring of Healfdene, 1476 gold-friend of men, now I go on this quest,
sovran wise, what once was said :
if in thy cause it came that I
should lose my life, thou wouldst loyal bide
to me, though fallen, in father's place ! 1480 Be guardian, thou, to this group of my thanes,
my warrior-friends, if War should seize me ;
and the goodly gifts thou gavest me,
Hrothgar beloved, to Hygelac send! ^
Geatland's king may ken by the gold, I486 Hrethel's son see, when he stares at the treasure,
that I got me a friend for goodness famed,
and joyed while I could in my jewel-bestower.
And let Unferth wield this wondrous sword,^
earl far-honored, this heirloom precious,
1 "Discharge for me," that is, "my two great obligations : care for my thanes, and the rendering to my lord of what I have won by my prowess," — good Germanic ethics.
2 The sword which Hrothgar gave to Beowulf ? Or Beowulf's own sword which he brought with him ?
BEOWULF 89
1490 hard of edge : with Hrunting I
seek doom of glory, or Death shall take me."
After these words the Weder-Geat lord boldly hastened, biding never answer at all : and ocean floods
1495 closed o'er the hero. Long while ^ of the day fled ere he felt the floor of the sea. Soon found the fiend who the flood-domain sword-hungry held these hundred winters, greedy and grim, that some guest from above,
1500 some man, was raiding her monster-realm. She grasped out for him with grisly claws,^ and the warrior seized; yet scathed she not his body hale; the breastplate hindered, as she strove to shatter the sark of war,
1505 the linked harness, with loathsome hand.
Then bore this brine-wolf, when bottom she ^ touched, the lord of rings to the lair she haunted, whiles vainly he strove, though his valor held, weapon to wield against wondrous monsters
1510 that sore beset him ; sea-beasts many tried with fierce tusks to tear his mail, and swarmed on the stranger. But soon he marked he was now in some hall, he knew not which, where water never could work him harm,
1515 nor through the roof could reach him ever fangs of the flood. Firelight he saw, beams of a blaze that brightly shone.
^ " An hour of the day," — Mullenhoff. Others translate : " the space of a whole day."
2 In the saga of Onn and Grettir, it is a cat-monster with which the hero fights, 8 Or " he " ?
90 THE OLDEST ENGLISH EPIC
Then^ the warrior was ware of that wolf-of-the-deep, mere-wife monstrous. For mighty stroke
1520 he swung his blade, and the blow withheld not. Then sang on her head that seemly blade its war-song wild. But the warrior found the light-of -battle ^ was loath to bite, to harm the heart : its hard edge failed
1525 the noble at need, yet had known of old
strife hand to hand, and had helmets cloven, doomed men's fighting-gear. First time, this, for the gleaming blade that its glory fell. Firm still stood, nor failed in valor,
1530 heedful of high deeds, Hygelac's kinsman ; flung away fretted sword, featly jewelled, the angry earl ; on earth it lay steel-edged and stiff. His strength he trusted, hand-gripe of might. So man shall do
1536 whenever in war he weens to earn him lasting fame, nor fears for his life ! Seized then by shoulder,^ shrank not from combat, the Geatish war-prince Grendel's mother. Flung then the fierce one, filled with wrath,
1 Discrepancies here vex the higher critic ; but they are simply some- what exaggerated traits of structure and style. The course of the action is not "hopelessly confused." Beowulf, overwhelmed by the first onset of Grendel's mother, is dragged to her lair, and on the way is beset by monsters of every kind. Managing to extricate himself from the coil, he finds he is in a great arched hall, free of the water, and has only the mother of Grendel before him. He takes good heed of her and prepares his attack.
2 Kenning for " sword." Hrunting is bewitched, laid under a spell of uselessness, along with all other swords. See note above to v. 1455.
* Changed by many editions to "hair." The two sentences here with " then " in each show well the dissected style of our old epic verse.
BEOWULF ©1
1640 his deadly foe, that she fell to ground.
Swift on her part she paid him back
with grisly grasp, and grappled with him.
Spent with struggle, stumbled the warrior,
fiercest of fighting-men, fell adown. 1545 On the hall-guest she hurled herself, hent her short sword,
broad and brown-edged,^ the bairn to avenge,
the sole-born son. — On his shoulder lay
braided breast-mail, barring death,
withstanding entrance of edge or blade. 1550 Life would have ended for Ecgtheow's son,
under wide earth for that earl of Geats,
had his armor of war not aided him,
battle-net hard, and holy God
wielded the victory, wisest Maker. 1556 The Lord of Heaven allowed his cause ;
and easily rose the earl erect.
XXIII
'Mid the battle-gear saw he a blade triumphant, old-sword of Eotens, with edge of proof, warriors' heirloom, weapon unmatched,
1660 — save only 'twas more than other men to bandy-of-battle could bear at all — as the giants had wrought it, ready and keen. Seized then its chain-hilt the Scyldings' chieftain, bold and battle-grim, brandished the sword,
1565 reckless of life, and so wrathfully smote
1 This brown of swords, evidently meaning burnished, bright, con- tinues to be a favorite adjective in the popular ballads.
92 THE OLDEST ENGLISH EPIC
that it gripped her neck and grasped her hard,
her bone-rings breaking : the blade pierced through
that fated-one's flesh : to floor she sank.
Bloody the blade : he was blithe of his deed. 1670 Then blazed forth light. 'Twas bright within
as when from the sky there shines unclouded
heaven's candle. The hall he scanned.
By the wall then went he ; his weapon raised
high by its hilts the Hygelac-thane, 1575 angry and eager. That edge was not useless Wi i ' ^ ^
to the warrior now. He wished with speed
Grendel to guerdon for grim raids many,
for the war he waged on Western-Danes
oftener far than an only tirae,^ 1580 when of Hrothgar's hearth-companions
he slew in slumber, in sleep devoured,
fifteen men of the folk of Danes,
and as many others outward bore,
his horrible prey. Well paid for that 1586 the wrathful prince ! For now prone he saw
Grendel stretched there, spent with war,
spoiled of life, so scathed had left him
Heorot's battle. The body sprang far
when after death it endured the blow, 1590 sword-stroke savage, that severed its head.
^ This belittling variation of the "many raids" just mentioned, the solemnity of the favorite litotes, give an enfeebled air to modern Eng- lish. The ancient English had other views of poetical style than ours. — The long parenthesis, too, while Beowulf's sword is uplifted over the dead Grendel, is not to present taste. — The cutting off of the head, as Gering suggests, is to prevent Grendel from visiting his old haunts as a ghost and stirring up new troubles. He could not be harmed by ordinary swords, as all were conjured; but this old giant blade of the monsters has no spell laid on it.
BEOWULF 93
Soon,^ then, saw the sage companions who waited with Hrothgar, watching the flood, that the tossing waters turbid grew, blood-stained the mere. Old men together,
1596 hoary -haired, of the hero spake ;
the warrior would not, they weened, again, proud of conquest, come to seek their mighty master. To many it seemed the wolf -of-the- waves had won his life.
1600 The ninth hour ^ came. The noble Scyldings left the headland ; homeward went the gold-friend of men.^ But the guests sat on, stared at the surges, sick in heart, and wished, yet weened not, their winsome lord
1606 again to see.
Now that sword began, from blood of the fight, in battle-droppings,* war-blade, to wane : 'twas a wondrous thing that all of it melted as ice is wont when frosty fetters the Father loosens,
1610 unwinds the wave-bonds, wielding all - seasons and times : the true God he !
Nor took from that dwelling the duke of the Geats precious things, though a plenty he saw, save only the head and that hilt withal
1616 blazoned with jewels : the blade had melted,
burned was the bright sword, her blood was so hot,
* After the killing of the monster and Grendel's decapitation.
2 Strictly this would be three o'clock in the afternoon ; but the close of the day, perhaps the shorter northern day in winter, seems indicated. Gering translates " evening."
' Hrothgar.
* The blade slowly dissolves in blood-stained drops like icicles.
94 THE OLDEST ENGLISH EPIC
SO poisoned the hell-sprite who perished within there.
Soon he was swimming who safe saw in combat
downfall of demons ; up-dove through the flood. 1620 The clashing waters were cleansed now,
waste of waves, where the wandering fiend
her life-days left and this lapsing world.
Swam then to strand the sailors'-refuge,
sturdy-in-spirit, of sea-booty glad, 1626 of burden brave he bore with him.
Went then to greet him, and God they thanked,
the thane-band choice of their chieftain blithe,
that safe and sound they could see him again.
Soon from the hardy one helmet and armor 1630 deftly they doffed : now drowsed the mere,
water 'neath welkin, with war-blood stained. Forth they fared by the footpaths thence,
merry at heart the highways measured,
well-known roads. Courageous men 1635 carried the head from the cliff by the sea,
an arduous task for all the band,
the firm in fight, since four were needed
on the shaf t-of-slaughter ^ strenuously ^ to bear to the gold-hall Grendel's head. 1640 So presently to the palace there
foemen fearless, fourteen Geats,
marching came. Their master-of-clan
mighty amid them the meadow-ways trod.
Strode ^ then within the sovran thane 1645 fearless in fight, of fame renowned,
hardy hero, Hrothgar to greet. '^ ^And next by the hair into hall was borne
1 Spear. 2 See note to v. 720. .
BEOWULF 95
Grendel's head, where the henchmen were drinking, an awe to clan and queen alike, 1650 a monster of marvel : the men looked on.
XXIV
Beowulf spake, bairn of Ecgtheow : —
" Lo, now, this sea-booty, son of Healfdene,
Lord of Scyldings, we've lustily brought thee,
sign of glory ; thou seest it here. 1666 Not lightly did I with my life escape !
In war under water this work I essayed
with endless effort; and even so
my strength had been lost had the Lord not shielded me.
Not a whit could I with Hrunting do 1660 in work of war, though the weapon is good;
yet a sword the Sovran of Men vouchsafed me
to spy on the wall there, in splendor hanging,
old, gigantic, — how oft He guides
the friendless wight ! — and I fought with that brand, 1665 felling in fight, since fate was with me,
the house's wardens. That war-sword then
all burned, bright blade, when the blood gushed o'er it,
battle-sweat hot ; but the hilt I brought back
from my foes. So avenged I their fiendish deeds, 1670 death-fall of Danes, as was due and right.
And this is my best, that in Heorot now
safe thou canst sleep with thy soldier band,
and every thane of all thy folk
both old and young ; no evil fear, 1675 Scyldings' lord, from that side again,
88 THE OLDEST ENGLISH EPIC
aught ill for thy earls, as erst thou must ! " Then the golden hilt, for that gray-haired leader, hoary hero, in hand was laid, giant-wrought, old. So owned and enjoyed it
1680 after downfall of devils, the Danish lord,
wonder-smiths' work, since the world was rid of that grim-souled fiend, the foe of God, murder-marked, and his mother as well. Now it passed into power of the people's king,
1685 best of all that the oceans bound
who have scattered their gold o'er Scandia's isle. Hrothgar spake — the hilt he viewed, heirloom old, where was etched the rise of that far-off fight when the floods o'erwhelmed,
1690 raging waves, the race of giants
(fearful their fate !), a folk estranged from God Eternal : whence guerdon due in that waste of waters the Wielder paid them. So on the guard of shining gold
1696 in runic staves it was rightly said
for whom^ the serpent-traced sword was wrought, best of blades, in bygone days, and the hilt well wound. — The wise-one spake, son of Healfdene ; silent were all : —
1700 " Lo, so may he say who sooth and right follows 'mid folk, of far times mindful, a land-warden old,^ that this earl belongs
1 Often the maker put his own name on what he made, and in verse : Ek Hlewagastiz Holtingaz horna tawido, runs the inscription on the famous golden horn; that is, " I, Hlewagast Holting, this horn have made," — probably the oldest Germanic verse that is preserved.
2 That is, ' ' whoever has as wide authority as I have and can remem- ber so far back so many instances of heroism, may well say, as I say, that no better hero ever lived than Beowulf."
BEOWULF 97
to the better breed ! So, borne aloft, thy fame must fly, O friend my Beowulf, 1705 far and wide o'er folksteads many. Firmly thou shalt
all maintain,! mighty strength with mood of wisdom. Love of
mine will I assure thee, as, awhile ago, I promised ; thou shalt prove a stay
in future, in far-off years, to folk of thine.
to the heroes a help. Was not Heremod ' thus
1710 to offspring of Ecgwela, Honor-Scyldings,
nor grew for their grace, but for grisly slaughter, for doom of death to the Danishmen. He slew, wrath-swollen, his shoulder-comrades, companions at board ! So he passed alone,
1715 chieftain haughty, from human cheer.
Though him the Maker with might endowed, delights of power, and uplifted high above all men, yet blood-fierce his mind, his breast-hoard, grew ; no bracelets gave he
1720 to Danes as was due ; he endured all joyless strain of struggle and stress of woe, long feud with his folk. Here find thy lesson ! Of virtue advise thee I This verse ^ I have said for
thee, wise from lapsed winters. Wondrous seems
1725 how to sons of men Almighty God
1 The three verses are hypermetric in the original.
2 The antitype again : see above, v. 901. Heremod is of Hrothgar's own kingdom ; of Ecgwela, a Danish ancestor also, nothing is known.
' Poetry was a wide word of old, and gid — i.e. " verse " or " poem " — was also used to indicate the oral communication of wisdom (once always in rimed saws, proverbs, and the like) and philosophy.
98 THE OLDEST ENGLISH EPIC
in the strength of His spirit sendeth wisdom, estate, high station : He swayeth all things. Whiles He letteth right lustily fare the heart of the hero of high-born race, —
1730 in seat ancestral assigns him bliss, his folk's sure fortress in fee to hold, puts in his power great parts of the earth, empire so ample, that end of it this wanter-of-wisdom weeneth none.
1735 So he waxes in wealth ; nowise can harm him illness or age ; no evil cares shadow his spirit ; no sword-hate threatens from ever an enemy : all the world wends at his will ; no worse he knoweth,
1740 till all within him obstinate pride
waxes and wakes while the warden slumbers, the spirit's sentry ; sleep is too fast which masters his might, and the murderer nears, stealthily shooting the shafts from his bowl
XXV
1745 " Under harness his heart then is hit indeed by sharpest shafts ; and no shelter avails from foul behest of the hellish fiend. ^ Him seems too little what long he possessed. Greedy and grim, no golden rings
1 That is, he is now undefended by conscience from the temptations (shafts) of the devil. This " sermon" of Hrothgar may be "of forty- parson power," as some one says ; but one likes to know what sort of ser- mon those English of the seventh century preferred. This one would have pleased Dr. Johnson. The same allegory is found in the Middle-English Saioles Warde, — that is, conscience, — and in many other places, times, and authors.
BEOWULF 09
1760 he gives for his pride ; the promised future
forgets he and spurns, with all God has sent him,
Wonder-Wielder, of wealth and fame.
Yet in the end it ever comes
that the frame of the body fragile yields,
1756 fat^d falls ; and there follows another who joyously the jewels divides,^ the royal riches, nor recks of his forebear. Ban, then, such baleful thoughts, Beowulf dearest, best of men, and the better part choose,
1760 profit eternal ; and temper thy pride,
warrior famous ! The flower of thy might lasts now a while : but erelong it shall be that sickness or sword thy strength shall minish, or fang of fire, or flooding billow,
1765 or bite of blade, or brandished spear, or odious age ; or the eyes' clear beam wax dull and darken : Death even thee in haste shall o'erwhelm, thou hero of war ! So the Ring-Danes these half-years a hundred I ruled,
1770 wielded 'neath welkin, and warded them bravely from mighty-ones many o'er middle-earth, from spear and sword, till it seemed for me no foe could be found under fold of the sky. Lo, sudden the shift ! To me seated secure
1776 came grief for joy when Grendel began to harry my home, the hellish foe; for those ruthless raids, unresting I suffered
1 Note the absumet heres CoBcuba dignior as partly a division of treas. ure, the right Germanic thing to do, and the hint of revel and profusioo in Horace's vein.
100 THE OLDEST ENGLISH EPIC
heart-sorrow heavy. Heaven be thanked,
Lord Eternal, for life extended 1780 that I on this head all hewn and bloody,
after long evil, with eyes may gaze ! I — Go to the bench now ! Be glad at banquet,
warrior worthy ! A wealth of treasure
at dawn of day, be dealt between us ! " 1786 Glad was the Geats' lord, going betimes
to seek his seat, as the Sage commanded.
Afresh, as before, for the famed-in-battle,
for the band of the hall, was a banquet dight
nobly anew. The Night-Helm darkened 1790 dusk o'er the drinkers.
The doughty ones rose
for the hoary-headed would hasten to rest,
ag^d Scylding ; and eager the Geat,
shield-fighter sturdy, for sleeping yearned.
Him wander-weary, warrior-guest 1796 from far, a hall-thane heralded forth,
who by custom courtly cared for all
needs of a thane as in those old days
warrior-wanderers wont to have. r So slumbered the stout-heart. Stately the hall 1800 rose gabled and gilt where the guest slept on
till a raven black the rapture-of-heaven ^
blithe-heart boded. Bright came flying
shine after shadow. The swordsmen hastened,
athelings all were eager homeward 1805 forth to fare; and far from thence
^ Kenning for the sun. — This is a strange r6le for the raven. He is the warrior's bird of battle, exults in slaughter and carnage ; his joy here is a compliment to the sunrise.
BEOWULF 101
the great-hearted guest would guide his keel.
Bade then the hardy-one Hrunting be brought to the son of Eeglaf, the sword bade him take, excellent iron, and uttered his thanks for it,
1810 quoth that he counted it keen in battle,
" war-friend " winsome : with words he slandered not edge of the blade : 'twas a big-hearted man ! ^ Now eager for parting and armed at point warriors waited, while went to his host
1815 that Darling of Danes. The doughty atheling to high-seat hastened and Hrothgar greeted.
XXVI
Beowulf spake, bairn of Ecgtheow : — "Lo, we seafarers say our will, far-come men, that we fain would seek 1820 Hygelac now. We here have found
hosts to our heart : thou hast harbored us well. If ever on earth I am able to win me
1 This is the simplest way to render a disputed passage ; but it may not be the right way. The "hardy-one" here is Beowulf; he returns "Hrunting" in a formal speech, and praises its merits, laying no stress (^properly, for enchantment was at work) on its failure to "bite " in the battle with Grendel's mother. So the Geat's courtesy is put in strong relief, and the parting from Unferth is contrasted with the meeting. Probably there were favorite songs once about BeowTilf's flyting with Unferth, and our amiable Christian poet, who has doubtless softened many of its asperities, now lays stress on the reconciliation. Klaeber, how- ever, has shown that the philological ways of this interpretation are not smooth. Moreover, the present to a parting guest was inexorable custom ^ in Germania ; and Unferth is only doing his duty when (the passage can so be read) he, "the hardy-one," the son of Eeglaf, orders "Hrunting" to be brought to Beo\vvilf, who accepts it in his customary polite fashion. Of course, one must suppose that " Hrunting" has been already handed back to its owner, and is now finally presented.
102 THE OLDEST ENGLISH EPIC
more of thy love, O lord of men, aught anew, than I now have done,
1825 for work of war I am willing still I If it come to me ever across the seas that neighbor foemen annoy and fright thee, — as they that hate thee erewhile have used, — thousands then of thanes I shall bring,
1830 heroes to help thee. Of Hygelac I know, ward of his folk, that, though few his years, the lord of the Geats will give me aid by word and by work, that well I may serve thee, wielding the war-wood to win thy triumph
1836 and lending thee might when thou lackest men. If thy Hrethric should come to court of Geats,^ a sovran's son, he will surely there find his friends. A far-off land each man should visit who vaunts him brave."
1840 Him then answering, Hrothgar spake : — " These words of thine the wisest God sent to thy soul ! No sager counsel from so young in years e'er yet have I heard. Thou art strong of main and in mind art wary,
1846 art wise in words ! I ween indeed if ever it hap that Hrethel's heir 2 by spear be seized, by sword-grim battle,
1 Courteous, dignified, smoothly phrased, this leave-taking speech is admirable, — The custom of sending one's son to serve and live in other noble families was maintained in England down to relatively modem times. The concluding sententia admirably balances advantage of travel with the dangers of those who go far from the protection of their own kin.
2 Hygelac. — The involutions and variations of this period — high compliment — are characteristic of all formal speeches in the epic.
BEOWULF 103
by illness or iron,^ thine elder and lord, people's leader, — and life be thine, —
1850 no seemlier man will the Sea-Geats find at all to choose for their chief and king, for hoard-guard of heroes, if hold thou wilt thy kinsman's kingdom ! Thy keen mind pleases mo the longer the better, Beowulf loved !
1855 Thou hast brought it about that both our peoples, sons of the Geat and Spear-Dane folk, shall have mutual peace, and from murderous strife, such as once they waged, from war refrain. Long as I rule this realm so wide,
1880 let our hoards be common, let heroes with gold each other greet o'er the gannet's-bath, and the ringed-prow bear o'er rolling waves tokens of love. I trow my landfolk towards friend and foe are firmly joined,
1865 and honor they keep in the olden way." -^/
To him in the hall, then, Healfdene's son gave treasures twelve, and the trust-of-earls bade him fare with the gifts to his folk beloved, hale to his home, and in haste return.
1870 Then kissed the king of kin renowned,
Scyldings' chieftain, that choicest thane,
and fell on his neck. Fast flowed the tears
of the hoary-headed. Heavy with winters,
he had chances twain, but he clung to this,^ —
^ Compare for this combination of abstract and concrete, Genesis, v. 2296 : —
When from thy heart hunger or wolf soul and body at the same time tears. So, also, "battling and bulwarks," v. 2323, below.
2 That is, he might or might not see Beowulf again. Old as he was, the latter chance was likely; but he clung to the former, hoping to see his young friend again " and exchange brave words in the halL''
104 THE OLDEST ENGLISH EPIC
1876 that each should look on the other again,
and hear him in hall. Was this hero so dear to him, his breast's wild billows he banned in vain; safe in his soul a secret longing, locked 1 in his mind, for that loved man
1880 burned in his blood. Then Beowulf strode, glad of his gold-gifts, the grass-plot o'er, warrior blithe. The wave-roamer bode riding at anchor, its owner awaiting. As they hastened onward, Hrothgar's gift
1886 they lauded at length. — 'Twas a lord unpeered, every way blameless, till age had broken — it spareth no mortal — his splendid might.
XXVII
Came now to ocean the ever-courageous hardy henchmen, their harness bearing,
1890 woven war-sarks. The warden marked, trusty as ever, the earl's return. From the height of the hill no hostile words reached the guests as he rode to greet them; but " Welcome ! " he called to that Weder clan
1896 as the sheen-mailed spoilers to ship marched on. Then on the strand, with steeds and treasure and armor their roomy and ring-dight ship was heavily laden: high its mast
^ The Anglo-Saxon gnomic poems insist on this secrecy of thought.
When a man speaks or sings, "he unlocks his word-hoard." The
advice of secrecy is emphasized for exiles and kinless men, as witness The
Wanderer, v. 11 :
Sooth I know,
in every earl 'tis an excellent trait
that he bar and bind his breast amain,
keep fast tiis thought-treasure, — think as he will.
BEOWULF 105
rose over Hrothgar's hoarded gems.
1900 A sword to the boat-guard Beowulf gave,
mounted with gokl ; on the mead-bench since he was better esteemed, that blade possessing, heirloom old. — Their ocean-keel boarding, they drove through the deep, and Daneland left.
1905 A sea-cloth was set, a sail with ropes,
firm to the mast; the flood-timbers moaned; ^ nor did wind over billows that wave-swimmer blow across from her course. The craft sped on, foam-necked it floated forth o'er the waves,
1910 keel firm-bound over briny currents,
till they got them sight of the Geatish cliffs, home-known headlands. High the boat, stirred by winds, on the strand updrove. Helpful at haven the harbor-guard stood,
1915 who long already for loved companions by the water had waited and watched afar. He bound to the beach the broad-bosomed ship with anchor-bands, lest ocean-billows that trusty timber should tear away.
1920 Then Beowulf bade them bear the treasure, gold and jewels ; no journey far was it thence to go to the giver of rings, Hygelac Hrethling : at home he dwelt by the sea-wall close, himself and clan.
1925 Haughty that house, a hero the king, high the hall, and Hygd ^ right young.
1 With the speed of the boat.
2 Queen to Hygelac. She is praised by contrast with the antitype, Thryth, just as Beowulf was praised by contrast with Heremod. The slight insertion of a negative in the text of v. 1932, made by Schiicking,
10ft THE OLDEST ENGLISH EPIC
wise and wary, though winters few
in those fortress walls she had found a home,
Haereth's daughter. Nor humble her ways,
1930 nor grudged she gifts to the Geatish men,
of precious treasure. Not Thryth's pride showed she, folk-queen famed, or that fell deceit. Was none so daring that durst make bold (save her lord alone) of the liegemen dear
1935 that lady full in the face to look, but forged fetters he found his lot, bonds of death ! And brief the respite; soon as they seized him, his sword-doom was spoken, and the burnished blade a baleful murder
1940 proclaimed and closed. No queenly way for woman to practise, though peerless she, that the weaver-of-peace ^ from warrior dear
Englische Studien, xxxix, 108 f., seems a most happy solution of the prob- lem presented by this passage. The old emendation, —
But Thrytho proved, folk-queen fearsome, fell and cruel . . .
was rejected by recent editors because Thrytho is not a likely form of the name. Reading as the translation reads, one has a most likely bit of praise by negative, in the usual manner of this poet, for Hygd, who did not show the cruelty and haughtiness of Thryth, the legendary wife of Offa, king of the Continental Angles. With her legend is perhaps mingled a reference to the Anglo-Saxon queen of the Mercian Offa, Cynethryth. She died in 796, and is too late for the original version of the Beowulf, if those considerations have weight which are urged against a date for the original version later than the seventh century. See, however, Steven- son's note to Asser's Alfred, Capp. 14, 16, and p. 206, where the tale of Eadburh, daughter to Offa of Mercia, is told to explain why Wessex folk disliked the name of "queen." — Thryth belongs to that well-known family of obstreperous maids who riot and rage until tamed by the right man. In no case can the description apply to Hygd, who is called " very young." — There is some reason for thinking that TTie Banished Wife's Complaint, an Anglo-Saxon lyric, is based on the story of Offa. 1 Kenning for " wife."
BEOWULF 107
by wrath and lying his life should reave !
But Hamming's kinsman ^ hindered this. — 1946 For over their ale men also told
that of these folk-horrors fewer she wrought,^
onslaughts of evil, after she went,
gold-decked bride, to the brave young prince,
atheling haughty, and Offa's hall 1950 o'er the fallow flood at her father's bidding
safely sought, where since she prospered,
royal, throned, rich in goods,
fain of the fair life fate had sent her,
and leal in love to the lord of warriors. 1965 He, of all heroes I heard of ever
from sea to sea, of the sons of earth,
most excellent seemed. Hence ^ Offa was praised
for his fighting and feeing by far-off men,
the spear-bold warrior ; wisely he ruled 1960 over his empire. Eomer woke to him,
help of heroes, Hemming's kinsman,
grandson of Garmund,* grim in war.
xxvni
Hastened the hardy one, henchmen with him, sandy strand of the sea to tread 1965 and widespread ways. The world's great candle, sun shone from south. They strode along
1 Eomer, as below (conjecturally), v. 19G0 ; or, as Gering suggests, Offa himself.
2 Litotes for " ceased altogether." — Offa is praised in the Widsith lay, V. 38.
2 See the ideal of a good king at the opening of the poem. ■* The genealogy of the Mercian Offa makes his ancestral Anglian name- sake, Offa, the sou of Woermund.
108 THE OLDEST ENGLISH EPIC
with sturdy steps to the spot they knew where the battle-king young, his burg within, slayer of Ongentheow,^ shared the rings,
1070 shelter-of-heroes. To Hygelac
Beowulf's coming was quickly told, — that there in the court the clansmen's refuge, the shield-companion sound and alive, hale from the hero-play homeward strode.
1979; With haste in the hall, by highest order, room for the rovers was readily made. By his sovran he sat, come safe from battle, kinsman by kinsman. His kindly lord he first had greeted in gracious form,
1980 with manly words. The mead dispensing,
came through the high hall Hsereth's daughter, winsome to warriors, wine-cup bore to the hands of the heroes. Hygelac then his comrade fairly with question plied
1985 in the lofty hall, sore longing to know
what manner of sojourn the Sea-Geats made. " What came of thy quest, my kinsman Beowulf, when thy yearnings suddenly swept thee yonder battle to seek o'er the briny sea,
1990 combat in Heorot ? Hrothgar couldst thou aid at all, the honored chief, in his wide-known woes ? With waves of care my sad heart seethed ; I sore mistrusted my loved one's venture : long I begged thee
1996 by no means to seek that slaughtering monster,
1 By the hands of one of his retainers, who, as Tacitus pointed out, and Earle reminds us, were bound to attribute their own brave deeds to their chief, and give him the glory.
BEOWULF 109
but suffer the South- Danes to settle their feud themselves with Grendel. Now God be thanked that safe and sound I can see thee now ! " Beowulf spake, the bairn of Ecgtheow: —
2000 " 'Tis known and unhidden, Hygelac Lord, to many men, that meeting of ours, struggle grim between Grendel and me, which we fought on the field where full too many- sorrows he wrought for the Scylding-Victors,
2005 evils unending. These all I avenged. No boast can be from breed of Grendel, any on earth, for that uproar at dawn,i from the longest-lived of the loathsome race in fleshly fold ! — But first I went
2010 Hrothgar to greet in the hall of gifts,
where Healf dene's kinsman high-renowned, soon as my purpose was plain to him, assigned me a seat by his son and heir. The liegemen were lusty; my life-days never
2015 such merry men over mead in hall
have I heard under heaven ! The high-born queen, people's peace-bringer, passed through the hall, cheered the young clansmen, clasps of gold, ere she sought her seat, to sundry gave.
2020 Oft to the heroes Hrothgar's daughter, to earls in turn, the ale-cup tendered, — she whom I heard these hall-companions Freawaru name, when fretted gold she proffered the warriors. Promised is she,
1 " Struggle by night," translates Gering ; that is, the fight between Grendel and Beowulf. It might refer, however, — see v. 126, — to the out- cries and wailings of the Danes. No more boasting over that !
110 THE OLDEST ENGLISH EPIC
2025 gold-decked maid, to the glad son of Froda.^
Sage this seems to the Scyldings'-friend,
kingdom's-keeper : he counts it wise
the woman to wed so and ward off feud,
store of slaughter. But seldom ever 2030 when men are slain, does the murder-spear sink
but briefest while, though the bride be fair ! ^ "Nor haply will like it the Heathobard lord,
and as little each of his liegemen all,
when a thane of the Danes, in that doughty throng, 2036 goes with the lady along their hall,
and on him the old-time heirlooms glisten
hard and ring-decked, Heathobard's treasure,
weapons that once they wielded fair
until they lost at the linden-play ^
1 Beowulf gives his uncle the king not mere gossip of his journey, but a statesmanlike forecast of the outcome of certain policies at the Danish court. Talk of interpolation here is absurd. As both Beowulf and Hygelac know, — and the folk for whom the Beowulf was put together also knew, — Froda was king of the Heathobards (probably the Lango- bards, once near neighbors of Angle and Saxon tribes on the continent) , and had fallen in fight with the Danes. Hrothgar will set aside this feud by giving his daughter as "peace-weaver" and wife to the young king Ingeld, son of the slain Froda. But Beowulf, on general principles and from his observation of the particular case, foretells trouble. He even goes into particulars ; and here the poet not unskilfully uses the actual Ingeld story, — which he knew doubtless in song and saga, as Saxo Grammaticus knew it, though in another version — for the forecast of the hero. It is worth noting that in Saxo the old warrior stirs his master by a lay of battle and vengeance which he chants at a banquet. — From the Widsith we know that Ingeld attacked Hrothgar later in Heorot, and was defeated by uncle and nephew in a bloody battle.
2 Play of shields, battle. A Danish warrior cuts down Froda in the fight, and takes his sword and armor, leaving them to a son. This son is selected to accompany his mistress, the younii princess Freawaru, to her new home when she is Ingeld's queen. Heedlessly he wears the sword of Froda in hall. An old warrior points it out to Ingeld, and eggs him
BEOWULF 111
2040 liegeman leal and their lives as well.
Then, over the ale, on this heirloom gazing,
some ash-wielder old ^ who has all in mind
that spear-death of men,^ — he is stern of mood,
heavy at heart, — in the hero young 2045 tests the temper and tries the soul
and war-hate wakens, with words like these: —
Canst thou not, comrade, ken that sword
which to the fray thy father carried
in his final feud, 'neath the fighting -mask^ 2050 dearest of blades, when the Danish slew him
and wielded the war-place on Withergild" s fall,^
after havoc of heroes, those hardy Scyldings ?
Now, the son of a certain slaughtering Dane^
proud of his treasure, paces this hall, 2055 Joys in the killing, and carries the jewel ^
that rightfully ought to he owned by thee !
Thus he urges and eggs him all the time
with keenest words, till occasion offers
that Freawaru's thane, for his father's deed, 2060 after bite of brand in his blood must slumber,
on to vengeance. At his instigation the Dane is killed ; but the murderer, afraid of results, and knowing the land, escapes. So the old feud must break out again.
1 In Saxo (Bk. VI) Starcatherus sees that the slayers of Frotho, father of Ingellus, are high in favor with the latter king, and sings a song of reproach at the banquet. At first he complains of the neglect of himself in his old age and of the king's gluttony ; then he passes to taunts of cowardice and an appeal for vengeance on the murderers.
2 That is, their disastrous battle and the slaying of their king.
3 Withergild is mentioned in Widsith, v. 124, and must be a proper name. If it were taken otherwise, it might be translated " when recom- pence, chance to recover losses, was out of the question."
* The sword, here called "treasure " or " jewel " in no strained figure. It is unnecessary to turn it into a collar or other adornment.
112 THE OLDEST ENGLISH EPIC
losing his life ; but that liegeman flies living away, for the land he kens. And thus be broken on both their sides oaths of the earls, when Ingeld's breast
2065 wells with war-hate, and wife-love now after the care-billows cooler grows.
" So 1 I hold not high the Heathobards' faith due to the Danes, or their during love and pact of peace. — But I pass from that,
2070 turning to Grendel, O giver-of-treasure, and saying in full how the fight resulted, hand-fray of heroes. When heaven's jewel had fled o'er far fields, that fierce sprite came, night-foe savage, to seek us out
2075 where safe and sound we sentried the hall. To Hondscio then was that harassing deadly, his fall there was fated. He first was slain, girded warrior. Grendel on him turned murderous mouth, on our mighty kinsman,
2080 and all of the brave man's body devoured. Yet none the earlier, empty-handed, would the bloody-toothed murderer, mindful of bale, outward go from the gold-decked hall : but me he attacked in his terror of might,
2085 with greedy hand grasped me. A glove hung by him ^
1 Beowulf returns to his forecast. Things might well go somewhat as follows, he says ; sketches a little tragic story ; and with this prophecy by illustration returns to the tale of his adventure. One will hardly agree with Miillenhoff that such a use by the poet of an old legend shows mere helpless imbecility of interpolation. In many other cases, say Gray's Bard, the close of Dickens's Tale of two Cities, Thomas of Ercaldoune, — to mention some very incongruous instances, — one praises the good art or artifice of narrative.
* Not an actual glove, but a sort of bag. The line could run — . . . with savage hand seized me. A sack hung by him . . .
BEOWULF 113
wide and wondrous, wound with bands ;
and in artful wise it all was wrought,
by devilish craft, of dragon-skins.
Me therein, an innocent man, 2090 the fiendish foe was fain to thrust
with many another. He might not so,
when I all angrily upright stood.
'Twere long to relate how that land-destroyer
I paid in kind for his cruel deeds ; 2095 yet there, my prince, this people of thine
got fame by my fighting. He fled away,
and a little space his life preserved ;
but there staid behind him his stronger hand
left in Heorot ; heartsick thence 2100 on the floor of the ocean that outcast fell.
Me for this struggle the Scyldings'-friend
paid in plenty with plates of gold,
with many a treasure, when morn had come
and we all at the banquet-board sat down. 2105 Then was song and glee. The gray-haired Scylding,
much tested, told of the times of yore.
Whiles the hero his harp bestirred, x
wood-of -delight ; now lays he chanted
of sooth and sadness, or said aright 2110 legends of wonder, the wide-hearted king ;
or for years of his youth he would yearn at times,
for strength of old struggles, now stricken with age,
hoary hero : his heart surged full
when, wise with winters, he wailed their flight. 2115 Thus in the hall the whole of that day
at ease we feasted, till fell o'er earth
another night. Anon full ready
114 THE OLDEST ENGLISH EPIC
in greed of vengeance, Grendel's mother
set forth all doleful. Dead was her son 2120 through war-hate of Weders ; now, woman monstrous,
with fury fell a foeman she slew,
avenged her offspring. From -^schere old,
loyal councillor, life was gone ;
nor might they e'en, when morning broke, 2125 those Danish people, their death-done comrade
burn with brands, on balefire lay
the man they mourned. Under mountain stream
she had carried the corpse with cruel hands.
For Hrothgar that was the heaviest sorrow 2130 of all that had laden the lord of his folk.
The leader then, by thy life, besought me
(sad was his soul) in the sea-waves' coil
to play the hero and hazard my being
for glory of prowess : my guerdon he pledged. 2135 I then in the waters — 'tis widely known —
that sea-fioor-guardian savage found.
Hand-to-hand there a while we struggled ;
billows welled blood ; in the briny hall
her head I hewed with a hardy blade 2140 from Grendel's mother, — and gained my life,
though not without danger. My doom was not yet.
Then the haven-of -heroes, Healfdene's son,
gave me in guerdon great gifts of price.
XXXI 1
" So held this king to the customs old,
2145 that I wanted for nought in the wage I gained,
the meed of my might ; he made me gifts,
1 Sections XXIX and XXX are not indicated.
BEOWULF 116
Healfdene's heir, for my own disposal. Now to thee, my prince, I proffer them all, gladly give them. Thy grace alone
2160 can find me favor. Few ^ indeed
have I of kinsmen, save, Hygelac, thee ! "
Then he bade them bear him the boar-head standard,^
the battle-helm high, and breastplate gray,
the splendid sword ; then spake in form : —
2155 " Me this war-gear the wise old prince, Hrothgar, gave, and his hest he added, that its story be straightway said to thee.' — A while it was held by Heorogar king, for long time lord of the land of Scyldings ;
2160 yet not to his son the sovran left it,
to daring Heoroweard, — dear as he was to him, his harness of battle. — Well hold thou it all ! " And I heard that soon passed o'er the path * of this treasure, all apple-fallow, four good steeds,
2165 each like the others ; arms and horses
he gave to the king. So should kinsmen be, not weave one another the net of wiles, or with deep-hid treachery death contrive
i"None." He forgets, or lets his compliment forget, Weohstan : see vv. 2813, 2602, below. But over fifty years pass between this date and the date of his speech to Wiglaf. Weohstan, moreover, was in ser- vice at the Swedish court (Gering suggests that he was a younger son and sought his fortune in foreign parts), and was actually fighting on the side of Geatland's foes. See note to v. 2602, below.
2Seev. 1021. Klaeber, Modern Philology, III, 462, compares the old " Raven " banners of the Northmen mentioned in the Anglo-Saxon Chroni- cle ; and Professor Hart refers to Asser's Life of Alfred, trans. Giles, Bohn ed., p. 62.
8 Or : That first to thee should his thanks be said.
* Followed it. The original figure is " guarded its tracks."
116 THE OLDEST ENGLISH EPIC
for neighbor and comrade. His nephew was ever 2170 by hardy Hygelac held full dear,
and each kept watch o'er the other's weal.
I heard, too, the necklace to Hygd he presented,
wonder- wrought treasure, which Wealhtheow gave him,
sovran's daughter : three steeds he added, 2176 slender and saddle-gay. Since such gift
the gem gleamed bright on the breast of the queen. Thus showed his strain the son of Ecgtheow
as a man remarked for mighty deeds
and acts of honor. At ale he slew not 2180 comrade or kin ; nor cruel his mood,
though of sons of earth his strength was greatest,
a glorious gift that God had sent
the splendid leader. Long was he spurned,
and worthless by Geatish warriors held ; 2185 him at mead the master-of-clans
failed full oft to favor at all.
Slack and shiftless ^ the strong men deemed him,
profitless prince ; but payment came,
to the warrior honored, for all his woes. — 2190 Then the bulwark-of-earls ^ bade bring within,
hardy chieftain, Hrethel's heirloom
garnished with gold : no Geat e'er knew
in shape of a sword a statelier prize.
The brand he laid in Beowulf's lap ; 2196 and of hides assigned him seven thousand, ^
1 Even in the name and story of the Roman Brutus one finds traces of this common motive in certain tales of the sluggish and stupid boy who blossoms out as a warrior, a hero of renown. It is very common in Norse legend. 2 Hygelac.
8 This is generally assumed to mean hides, though the text simply
^
BEOWULF in
with house and high-seat.^ They held in common land alike by their line of birth, inheritance, home : but higher the king because of his rule o'er the realm itself.
2200 Now further it fell with the flight of years, with harryings horrid, that Hygelac perished,^ and Heardred, too, by hewing of swords under the shield-wall slaughtered lay, when him at the van of his victor-folk
says "seven thousand." In v. 2994 Wulf and Eofor each get "a hun- dred thousand in land and winding rings. " A hide in England meant about 120 acres, though "the size of the acre varied." Wulf and Eofor together would thus get a tract as large as England itself ; see Mr. W. H. Stevenson's note in his edition of Asser's Alfred, p. 154. He points out that the numeral refers to both land and treasure. In this passage the seven thousand may also include the value of "house and high-seat," with vague idea of treasure in the bargain. Both numerals, then, the seven thousand and the hundred thousand, are indefinite expressions of quantity, somewhat as when one now says of a man that he is " worth a million."
Y 1 The seat in hall like a throne occupied by the owner and the head of
/the clan,
2 On the historical raid into Frankish territory between 512 and 520 A.D. The subsequent course of events, as gathered from hints of this epic, is partly told in Scandinavian legend. Heardred succeeds to the throne ; for Beowulf most houorably refuses Hygd's proposal and serves the young king as guardian and chief va.ssal. But the reign is short. If with Gering we put 518 as the date of Hygelac's fall, it would not be long before Heardred took up the cause of Eanmund and Eadgils, sons of Ohtere, both of them rebels against their uncle Onela, the Swedish king. Onela makes a raid into the territory of Heardred and kills him. Then Beowulf succeeds. His further relations with this feud will be noted be- low. — Heardred is called Hereric's